📚 Year 12 OCR Sociology Key Terms & Glossary Quick Memorisation Guide | OCR 社会学 (Year 12) 核心术语速记指南
Mastering sociological terminology is the foundation of success in Year 12 OCR Sociology. This guide provides a carefully selected set of key terms, each presented with a clear English definition immediately followed by its Chinese equivalent. Designed to support active recall and bilingual comprehension, this resource covers the core themes of socialisation, culture, identity, stratification, research methods, family, education and theory.
精通社会学专业术语是 Year 12 OCR 社会学取得好成绩的基础。本指南精选了核心术语，每个术语均先给出清晰的英文定义，再紧跟对应的中文解释。为帮助大家进行主动回忆和双语理解，内容涵盖了社会化、文化、身份认同、社会分层、研究方法、家庭、教育及理论等核心主题。
1. Socialisation and Culture | 社会化与文化
Socialisation: The lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values and behaviours deemed appropriate in their society. It is how culture is passed from one generation to the next.
社会化：个体在一生中学习社会认可的行为规范、价值观和行为方式的过程。正是通过社会化，文化得以代代相传。
Primary socialisation: The initial phase of socialisation that takes place in early childhood, mainly within the family. During this stage, children acquire basic language, emotional bonds and core values.
初级社会化：发生在儿童早期的社会化阶段，主要在家庭中进行。这一阶段儿童习得基本语言、情感纽带和核心价值观。
Secondary socialisation: The ongoing process that occurs beyond the family, through institutions such as schools, peer groups, the media and religion. It reinforces and expands upon the learning that began in primary socialisation.
次级社会化：在家庭之外通过学校、同辈群体、媒体和宗教等机构持续进行的社会化过程。它巩固并拓展了始于初级社会化的学习内容。
Culture: The whole way of life of a particular society or group, including its language, customs, beliefs, knowledge, art and morals. Culture is learned, not biologically inherited.
文化：某一特定社会或群体的整体生活方式，包括其语言、习俗、信仰、知识、艺术和道德观念。文化是后天习得的，而非生物遗传。
2. Norms, Values and Social Control | 规范、价值观与社会控制
Norms: Specific rules that guide behaviour in particular situations, for example queuing in line or saying "please" and "thank you". Norms can be formal (laws) or informal (folkways).
规范：在特定情境下指引行为的具体规则，例如排队等候或使用礼貌用语。规范可以是正式的（法律），也可以是非正式的（民俗）。
Values: Deeply held principles and standards that a society regards as important, such as freedom, equality or respect for authority. Values provide the general framework within which norms operate.
价值观：一个社会所重视的根本原则和标准，如自由、平等或尊重权威。价值观为规范发挥作用的总体框架奠定了基础。
Social control: The various mechanisms, both formal and informal, used by society to regulate individual and group behaviour. Sanctions are applied to ensure conformity to norms.
社会控制：社会用来调节个人和群体行为的各种机制，包括正式和非正式手段。通过实施奖惩确保人们对规范的遵从。
Sanctions: Rewards or punishments that reinforce socially accepted behaviour and discourage deviance. Positive sanctions include praise and promotion; negative sanctions range from frowns to imprisonment.
奖惩：用来强化符合社会期待的行为、抑制越轨行为的奖励或惩罚。正面奖惩包括表扬和晋升；负面奖惩从皱眉到监禁不等。
3. Identity and Self-Concept | 身份认同与自我概念
Identity: The sense of who we are as individuals and as members of social groups. It is shaped by both personal characteristics and social factors such as class, gender, ethnicity and nationality.
身份认同：我们作为个体以及作为社会群体成员的自我认知。它由个人特征和阶级、性别、族裔、国籍等社会因素共同塑造。
Self-concept: The overall picture we have of ourselves, comprising self-esteem, self-image and the ideal self. Cooley's "looking-glass self" suggests we develop our self-concept by imagining how others see us.
自我概念：我们对自身的整体认识，包括自尊、自我形象和理想自我。库利的"镜中我"理论认为，我们通过想象他人如何看待自己来发展自我概念。
I and Me (Mead): According to G.H. Mead, the "I" is the spontaneous, creative part of the self, while the "Me" represents the internalised expectations of society. The balance between the two shapes our behaviour.
主我与客我（米德）：根据米德的观点，"主我 (I)" 是自我中自发、创造性的部分，而"客我 (Me)" 代表了内化的社会期待。两者之间的平衡塑造了我们的行为。
Ascribed status: Social positions that are fixed at birth or assigned involuntarily later in life, such as prince, daughter or age-based status. They are given rather than earned.
先赋地位：一出生就固定下来或在生命后期被非自愿赋予的社会位置，如王子、女儿或基于年龄的地位。它们是给定的，而非努力获得的。
4. Roles, Status and Role Conflict | 角色、地位与角色冲突
Achieved status: Social positions that are earned or chosen through individual effort, talent or achievement, such as university student, doctor or convicted criminal. They reflect personal agency.
成就地位：通过个人努力、才能或成就获得或选择的社会位置，如大学生、医生或被定罪的罪犯。它们反映了个人的能动性。
Master status: A status that dominates and overrides all other statuses persons hold, shaping how they are perceived by others. Gender, disability or extreme wealth can act as master statuses.
主要地位：一个主导并凌驾于其他所有地位之上、影响他人对自己看法的地位。性别、残障或极端富有都可以成为主要地位。
Role: The expected pattern of behaviour associated with a particular status. For example, the role of a teacher includes preparing lessons, marking work and maintaining discipline.
角色：与某一特定地位相关的期望行为模式。例如，教师的角色包括备课、批改作业和维护课堂纪律。
Role conflict: A situation in which the demands of two or more roles clash, making it difficult to fulfil both simultaneously. A working mother, for instance, may face conflicts between occupational and domestic roles.
角色冲突：两个或多个角色的要求发生冲突、难以同时兼顾的情形。例如，一位职场母亲可能会面临职业角色和家庭角色之间的冲突。
5. Social Class and Stratification | 社会阶级与分层
Social stratification: The hierarchical organisation of a society into layers or strata based on factors such as class, wealth, power and status. Most societies exhibit some form of stratification.
社会分层：社会基于阶级、财富、权力和地位等因素而被划分为不同层级的等级结构。大多数社会都存在某种形式的分层。
Social class: A broad group of people sharing a similar economic position, characterised by occupation, income, wealth and lifestyle. Sociologists often distinguish between working class, middle class and upper class.
社会阶级：一个拥有相似经济地位的广泛群体，由职业、收入、财富和生活方式来界定。社会学家通常区分工人阶级、中产阶级和上层阶级。
Bourgeoisie: In Marxist theory, the ruling class that owns the means of production and exploits the working class (proletariat) for profit. The term highlights economic power and control.
资产阶级：在马克思主义理论中，拥有生产资料并剥削工人阶级（无产阶级）以获取利润的统治阶级。该词突出了经济权力和控制。
Proletariat: The class of wage labourers who, lacking ownership of the means of production, must sell their labour power to the bourgeoisie. Class struggle between the two groups is central to Marxist analysis.
无产阶级：由于不拥有生产资料而必须向资产阶级出卖自己劳动力的工薪劳动者阶级。两个群体之间的阶级斗争是马克思主义分析的中心。
6. Gender, Sex and Sexuality | 性别、生理性别与性存在
Sex: The biological distinction between males and females, based on anatomical and genetic differences. It is typically defined by chromosomes, hormones and reproductive organs.
生理性别：基于解剖学和遗传学差异对男性和女性作出的生物学区分，通常由染色体、荷尔蒙和生殖器官来界定。
Gender: The socially constructed and culturally informed differences between masculinity and femininity. Gender is learned through socialisation and varies across time and cultures.
社会性别：关于男性气质和女性气质的社会建构与文化界定的差异。社会性别通过社会化习得，并随时代和文化的不同而变化。
Hegemonic masculinity: The dominant, culturally idealised form of masculinity that subordinates other masculinities and femininities. It is associated with strength, authority and emotional control.
霸权男性气质：支配性的、文化上被理想化的男性气质形式，它从属性地压制其他男性气质的表达以及女性气质。它与力量、权威和情感控制相关联。
Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority and control of property. Feminists argue patriarchy operates in many social institutions.
父权制：男性掌握主要权力并在政治领导、道德权威和财产控制等方面占据主导地位的社会体制。女性主义者认为父权制在许多社会机构中运作。
7. Ethnicity, Race and National Identity | 族裔、种族与民族认同
Ethnicity: A sense of belonging to a social group that shares common cultural traditions, language, history and ancestry. Ethnic identity is often expressed through customs, food, religion and dress.
族裔：对共享共同文化传统、语言、历史和血统的社会群体的归属感。族裔认同通常通过习俗、饮食、宗教和服饰来表达。
Race: A historically created category based on perceived physical differences such as skin colour. Most sociologists view race as a social construct rather than a fixed biological reality.
种族：基于感知到的肤体差异（如肤色）所形成的历史范畴。多数社会学家认为种族是一种社会建构，而非固定的生物实在。
Institutional racism: Patterns of discrimination and inequality built into the normal operation of institutions such as schools, the police and the job market that disadvantage ethnic minority groups.
制度性种族主义：根植于学校、警察和就业市场等机构正常运作中的歧视和不平等模式，使少数族裔群体处于不利地位。
Multiculturalism: A perspective that values and promotes cultural diversity within a society, often associated with policies that encourage the retention of distinct cultural traditions alongside a shared national identity.
多元文化主义：重视并促进社会内部文化多样性的观点，通常与鼓励保留独特文化传统并同时维护共同国民身份的政策相联系。
8. Social Mobility and Life Chances | 社会流动与生活机会
Social mobility: Movement of individuals or groups up or down the social hierarchy. It can be measured across generations (intergenerational) or within a person's own lifetime (intragenerational).
社会流动：个人或群体在社会层级中的向上或向下移动。可在代际间（代际流动）或个人一生中（代内流动）进行测量。
Intergenerational mobility: A change in social position compared to the previous generation, for example a person whose parents were unskilled labourers becoming a professional. It reveals how open a society is.
代际流动：与上一代相比社会地位发生的变化，例如父母是非熟练劳动者、自己却成为专业人士。它能揭示社会的开放程度。
Life chances: The opportunities each individual has to improve their quality of life, access resources and fulfil their potential. Weber linked life chances to class position; factors such as health, education and housing are key.
生活机会：个体为改善生活质量、获取资源并发挥潜能的机遇。韦伯将生活机会与阶级地位相关联；健康、教育和住房等因素至关重要。
False consciousness: In Marxist thought, a working-class belief that the existing capitalist system is fair and natural, which prevents them from recognising their own exploitation and pursuing revolution.
虚假意识：在马克思主义思想中，工人阶级所持有的认为现行资本主义制度公平自然的信念，这种信念阻碍他们认识到自身被剥削并追求革命。
9. Research Methods Essentials | 研究方法核心术语
Validity: The extent to which a research method or instrument genuinely measures what it claims to measure. High validity means the findings reflect the true meaning of social phenomena.
效度：研究方法或工具真实测量其所声称要测量之物的程度。高效度意味着研究结果反映了社会现象的真实意义。
Reliability: The consistency and repeatability of a research study. A reliable method will produce the same results if replicated under identical conditions, for example a standardised questionnaire.
信度：研究的一致性和可重复性。一个具有信度的方法若在相同条件下重复进行，将产生相同的结果，例如标准化调查问卷。
Representativeness: The degree to which a sample reflects the characteristics of the target population. A representative sample allows researchers to generalise findings; a biased sample undermines this.
代表性：样本反映目标总体特征的程度。具有代表性的样本使研究者能够外推研究结果；有偏差的样本则会损害这一能力。
Qualitative data: Non-numerical, in-depth information that captures meanings, experiences and emotions. Methods include unstructured interviews, participant observation and open-ended questions.
定性数据：捕捉意义、经历和情感的非数值化深入信息。研究方法包括非结构化访谈、参与观察和开放式问题。
Quantitative data: Numerical information that can be counted, measured and statistically analysed. Surveys with closed questions and official statistics generate quantitative data.
定量数据：可以被计数、衡量并进行统计分析的数值化信息。带有封闭式问题的调查问卷和官方统计数据可产生定量数据。
10. Family Key Terms | 家庭核心术语
Nuclear family: A two-generation family unit consisting of a married or cohabiting couple and their dependent children. Functionalists often portray it as the ideal family form in industrial societies.
核心家庭：由一对已婚或同居伴侣及其未成年子女组成的两代人家庭单位。功能主义者常将其描绘为工业社会中理想的家庭形式。
Extended family: A family structure that includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, living together or in very close contact. It was more common in pre-industrial societies.
大家庭：包含核心家庭以外亲属的家庭结构，如祖父母、姑姨叔伯等，他们同住一处或联系非常紧密。在前工业化社会更为常见。
Symmetrical family (Young and Willmott): A family form in which roles of husband and wife are more equal and shared, both partners often working and participating in housework and childcare, although critics note that primary responsibility still frequently falls on women.
对称家庭（扬和威尔莫特）：夫妻角色更为平等和共享的家庭形式，双方往往都参加工作并分担家务和育儿，尽管批评者指出主要责任仍常落在女性肩上。
Domestic division of labour: The allocation of household tasks and childcare between partners. Sociologists examine how gender, class and culture shape who does what inside the home.
家务分工：伴侣之间对家务劳动和育儿责任的分配。社会学家研究性别、阶级和文化如何影响家庭内部的分工模式。
11. Education Key Terms | 教育核心术语
Cultural capital (Bourdieu): The non-economic resources, such as knowledge, tastes, language and educational credentials, that middle-class families possess and which give their children advantages in the education system.
文化资本（布尔迪厄）：中产阶级家庭所拥有的知识、品味、语言风格和教育资质等非经济资源，这些资源给子女在教育系统中带来优势。
Labelling: The process by which teachers attach meanings or definitions to students, such as "bright", "troublemaker" or "low ability". These labels can become self-fulfilling and influence a pupil's achievement.
贴标签：教师给学生附加意义或定义的过程，例如"聪明"、"捣蛋鬼"或"能力低下"。这些标签可能自我实现，并影响学生的学业成就。
Self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true. When a teacher treats a labelled pupil differently, the pupil may internalise the label and perform accordingly.
自我实现预言：一种预测通过直接或间接的方式导致自身成为现实的现象。当教师对一个被贴上标签的学生区别对待时，该生可能将这一标签内化并表现出相应的行为。
Correspondence principle (Bowles and Gintis): The claim that the organisation and social relationships of education mirror those of the workplace, preparing working-class students for obedience and middle-class students for management. Hidden curriculum reinforces this.
对应原则（鲍尔斯和金蒂斯）：认为教育的组织结构与社会关系复制了职场关系，使工人阶级学生为服从命令做准备、中产阶级学生为管理岗位做准备。隐性课程强化了这一过程。
12. Key Theoretical Perspectives | 核心理论视角
Functionalism: A consensus theory that views society as a system of interconnected parts that work together to maintain stability and social order. Institutions like the family, education and religion perform essential functions for society's survival.
功能主义：一种共识理论，将社会视为一个由相互关联的部分组成的系统，各部分共同协作以维持稳定和社会秩序。家庭、教育和宗教等机构为社会的存续履行必要功能。
Marxism: A conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx, emphasising the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. It sees institutions as serving the interests of the ruling class while reproducing class inequality.
马克思主义：一种基于马克思思想的冲突理论，强调资产阶级和无产阶级之间的斗争。它认为各类机构服务于统治阶级的利益，并复制阶级不平等。
Feminism: A conflict perspective that focuses on gender inequalities and the ways in which patriarchy oppresses women. Different strands, such as liberal, radical and Marxist feminism, propose different solutions to gender inequality.
女性主义：一种关注性别不平等以及父权制如何压迫女性的冲突视角。自由派、激进派和马克思主义女性主义等不同流派，针对性别不平等提出了各自的解决方案。
Interpretivism: A methodological view that emphasises understanding social actors' meanings and interpretations. Interpretivists prefer qualitative methods that capture the subjective experiences of individuals.
解释主义：一种强调理解社会行动者的意义和解释的方法论视角。解释主义者倾向于使用能捕捉个体主观体验的定性方法。
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