📚 Year 11 WJEC Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Guide | WJEC 11年级哲学：词汇术语速记指南
This guide provides a quick-reference list of essential philosophical terms for Year 11 WJEC Philosophy students. Memorising these terms and their meanings will help you answer exam questions with confidence and precision. Each term is paired with a clear definition in both English and Chinese, reinforcing your bilingual understanding and aiding retention.
本指南为 WJEC 11 年级哲学学生提供重要哲学术语的快速参考列表。熟记这些术语及其含义将帮助你有信心且准确地回答考试问题。每个术语均配有清晰的中英文定义，加强双语理解，辅助记忆。
1. Key Terms in the Existence of God | 关于上帝存在的关键术语
Theism – belief in the existence of God or gods, typically a personal being who is actively involved in the world.
有神论 – 相信有一位或多位神祇存在的信念，通常认为神具有位格并参与世界事务。
Atheism – the absence of belief in the existence of God or gods; a positive claim that no deity exists.
无神论 – 不相信神祇的存在；明确主张没有任何神明存在。
Agnosticism – the view that it is impossible to know whether God exists or that the evidence is inconclusive.
不可知论 – 认为无法知晓上帝是否存在，或现有证据不足以得出结论的观点。
Deism – belief in a supreme being who created the universe but does not intervene in it (a 'clockmaker' God).
自然神论 – 相信一位至高存在创造了宇宙但此后不干预世界运行（如“钟表匠”上帝）。
Pantheism – the belief that God is identical to the universe and everything in it; God is all.
泛神论 – 认为上帝与宇宙及万物同一；上帝即万有。
Monotheism – belief in only one God.
一神论 – 只信奉唯一神的信仰。
Polytheism – belief in multiple gods or deities.
多神论 – 信奉多位神灵的信仰。
2. The Teleological Argument | 目的论论证
Teleological argument – an argument for the existence of God based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, and design in the universe. (Also called the Design argument.)
目的论论证 – 基于宇宙中明显存在的秩序、目的和设计来证明上帝存在的论证。（亦称设计论证。）
Design argument – synonymous with teleological argument; infers a designer from the complexity and purpose in nature.
设计论证 – 与目的论论证同义；从自然界的复杂性和目的性推断出设计者存在。
Watchmaker analogy – William Paley's argument that if you find a watch, its complexity implies a watchmaker; similarly, the universe implies a divine designer.
钟表匠类比 – 威廉·佩利的论证：若在荒野发现一只表，其复杂性指向一位钟表匠；同样，宇宙也指向一位神圣设计者。
Design qua purpose – the idea that the universe shows evidence of being designed for a purpose, e.g. the eye for seeing.
目的性设计 – 宇宙显露出为某个目的而被设计的证据，如眼睛用来看。
Design qua regularity – the idea that the order and regularity found in the universe (e.g. planetary orbits) point to a designer.
规律性设计 – 宇宙中呈现的秩序和规律（如行星轨道）指向一位设计者。
Anthropic principle – the observation that the universe's physical constants appear finely tuned to allow life; used as a modern design argument.
人择原理 – 宇宙物理常数似乎被精细调节以允许生命存在；被用作现代设计论证的依据。
3. The Cosmological Argument | 宇宙论论证
Cosmological argument – an argument that argues from the existence of the universe to the existence of God as its first cause or necessary foundation.
宇宙论论证 – 从宇宙的存在出发，论证上帝是其第一因或必然基础的论证。
First Cause argument – the claim that everything has a cause, and there cannot be an infinite regress of causes, so there must be an uncaused first cause, which is God.
第一因论证 – 宣称万物皆有原因，而无限回溯不可能，因此必有一位无因的第一因，即上帝。
Unmoved Mover – Aristotle's concept of a primary cause of all motion in the universe that itself is not moved by anything else; adapted by Aquinas.
不动的推动者 – 亚里士多德的概念，指一切运动的初始因，自身不被任何事物推动；后被阿奎那吸收。
Aquinas' First Way – the argument from motion: things are in motion, and whatever is moved is moved by another, leading to a first unmoved mover.
阿奎那的第一路 – 运动的论证：事物在运动，凡被动者皆被他者推动，由此追溯至第一不动的推动者。
Contingency argument – everything in the universe is contingent (it relies on something else for its existence), so there must be a necessary being that explains why anything exists at all.
偶然性论证 – 宇宙中一切皆为偶然（依赖他物而存在），因此必有一个必然存在来解释万物的实存。
Infinite regress – an endless chain of causes that never reaches a first cause; cosmological arguments claim this is impossible.
无限回溯 – 永无止境的原因链，永不抵达第一因；宇宙论论证主张这不可能。
Kalam argument – a version of the cosmological argument: everything that begins to exist has a cause; the universe began to exist; therefore, the universe has a cause (God).
卡拉姆论证 – 宇宙论论证的一种形式：一切开始存在之物皆有其因；宇宙开始存在；故宇宙有其因（上帝）。
4. The Ontological Argument | 本体论论证
Ontological argument – an a priori argument for God's existence that attempts to deduce God's existence from the very concept of God.
本体论论证 – 一种先验论证，试图从上帝的概念本身演绎出上帝的存在。
A priori argument – an argument that relies on reasoning and concepts rather than on empirical evidence.
先验论证 – 依赖推理和概念而非经验证据的论证。
Anselm's definition – God is 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived'; if that being exists only in the mind, it is not the greatest – so it must exist in reality.
安瑟伦的定义 – 上帝是“无法设想比之更伟大者”；若此存在只存在于心灵中，则非最伟大――故必存在于现实中。
Gaunilo's island – a criticism of Anselm: using the same logic one could 'prove' the existence of the greatest conceivable island, which is absurd.
高尼罗的岛屿 – 对安瑟伦的批评：用相同逻辑可以“证明”可设想的至善之岛存在，这显然是荒谬的。
Predicate – a property that is attributed to a subject; in ontological arguments, existence is sometimes treated as a predicate.
谓词 – 归属于主词的性质；在本体论论证中，存在有时被当作一个谓词看待。
Descartes' version – existence is a perfection; God, being the supremely perfect being, must necessarily possess the perfection of existence.
笛卡尔的版本 – 存在是一种完满性；上帝作为至上完满的存在，必然拥有存在这种完满性。
Kant's objection – existence is not a real predicate; adding 'exists' to a concept does not add any new property; hence the ontological argument fails.
康德的反对意见 – 存在不是真实的谓词；给概念加上“存在”并不增添任何新性质；因此本体论论证不成立。
5. The Nature of God | 上帝的本质
Omnipotence – the attribute of being all-powerful; the ability to do anything that is logically possible.
全能 – 全能全力的属性；能够做到任何逻辑上可能之事。
Omniscience – the attribute of being all-knowing; knowing everything that has happened, is happening, and will happen.
全知 – 无所不知的属性；知晓一切已发生、正发生和将发生的事。
Omnibenevolence – the attribute of being all-good or perfectly loving; God desires the best for all creation.
全善 – 全然良善或完美仁爱的属性；上帝愿一切受造物得着最好的。
Eternal – existing outside of time; God sees all moments of time simultaneously (Boethius' view).
永恒 – 存在于时间之外；上帝同时观看时间中的一切时刻（波爱修斯的观点）。
Everlasting – existing throughout all time without beginning or end; God exists within time enduring forever.
永恒持续 – 贯穿全部时间而无始无终地存在；上帝在时间内存活到永远。
Transcendence – God's quality of being beyond the physical universe and independent of it.
超越性 – 上帝超越物质世界并独立于它的特质。
Immanence – God's quality of being present and active within the universe and in human life.
内在性 – 上帝临在于宇宙和人类生命中并积极参与的特质。
6. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
Problem of evil – the challenge of reconciling the existence of evil and suffering with the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God.
恶的问题 – 协调一位全能全善的上帝与恶及苦难之存在所引发的难题。
Moral evil – evil and suffering caused by human actions, such as murder, theft, or cruelty.
道德之恶 – 由人类行为造成的恶与苦难，如谋杀、盗窃或残忍。
Natural evil – evil and suffering caused by natural events, such as earthquakes, diseases, and floods, without direct human involvement.
自然之恶 – 由自然灾害如地震、疾病和洪水造成的恶与苦难，没有人类的直接参与。
Logical problem of evil – the claim that the statements 'God exists', 'God is omnipotent and omnibenevolent' and 'evil exists' are logically inconsistent.
逻辑恶的问题 – 声称“上帝存在”、“上帝全能全善”与“恶存在”这三个陈述在逻辑上不一致。
Evidential problem of evil – the argument that while evil might be logically compatible with God, the sheer amount and distribution of evil make God's existence improbable.
证据恶的问题 – 论证纵然恶可能与上帝在逻辑上相容，但恶之数量与分布使得上帝存在不太可能。
Inconsistent triad – J.L. Mackie's formulation: the three claims (God omnipotent, God omnibenevolent, evil exists) cannot all be true at the same time.
不一致三难 – J.L. 麦基的表述：上帝全能、上帝全善、恶存在这三者无法同时为真。
God is omnipotent ∧ God is omnibenevolent ∧ Evil exists → Contradiction
上帝全能 ∧ 上帝全善 ∧ 恶存在 → 矛盾
7. Theodicies & Defences | 神义论与辩护
Theodicy – an attempt to justify God's goodness and omnipotence in the face of evil; literally 'divine justice'.
神义论 – 在恶存在的情况下，为上帝的良善和全能进行辩护的尝试；字面意为“神之正义”。
Defence – a weaker claim than a theodicy; shows merely that the existence of evil is logically compatible with God's existence, without offering a full explanation.
辩护 – 比神义论更弱的主张；仅表明恶的存在与上帝存在在逻辑上相容，而不提供全面解释。
Augustinian theodicy – evil is not a thing but a privation of good; evil entered the world through the misuse of free will by angels and humans; God is not responsible.
奥古斯丁神义论 – 恶并非实体，而是善的缺乏；恶因天使和人类误用自由意志而进入世界；上帝不负责。
Free will defence – God gave humans free will, and both moral good and moral evil
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