📚 Year 11 WJEC Psychology: Core Knowledge Review | 英国 Year 11 WJEC 心理学：核心知识点梳理
Preparing for the WJEC GCSE Psychology exam requires a clear understanding of the key topics across biological, cognitive, social and developmental approaches. This article summarises the essential theories, studies and concepts you need to master for Unit 1 and Unit 2, from memory models to ethical research practice.
备战 WJEC 心理学 GCSE 考试需要理清生物、认知、社会和发展等心理学的核心议题。本文为你梳理 Unit 1 与 Unit 2 中必须掌握的经典理论、重要研究和关键概念，涵盖记忆模型、社会影响、心理问题、发展心理学、感知、学习理论、大脑与神经心理学以及研究方法与伦理。
1. Models of Memory and Forgetting | 记忆模型与遗忘
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes memory as three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves from sensory register to STM through attention, and from STM to LTM via rehearsal. Without rehearsal, information decays or is displaced.
阿特金森和谢夫林 (1968) 提出的多存储模型将记忆分为三种独立的存储：感觉登记、短时记忆和长时记忆。信息通过“注意”从感觉登记进入短时记忆，再通过“复述”转入长时记忆。如果没有复述，信息就会被衰退或被新的信息取代。
Later, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed the working memory model, which replaced the idea of a single STM with a central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer. This model explains how we can perform two tasks simultaneously if they use different slave systems.
后来，巴德利和希奇 (1974) 提出了工作记忆模型，用中央执行系统、语音环路、视空间画板和情景缓冲器代替了单一的短时记忆概念。该模型解释了为什么我们在同时进行两个任务时，如果使用不同的子系统就不会相互干扰。
Forgetting in STM is often explained by displacement or decay, whereas forgetting in LTM may be due to interference (proactive and retroactive) or retrieval failure. Context-dependent and state-dependent forgetting are examples of cue-dependent forgetting.
短时记忆的遗忘通常可用“衰退”或“取代”来解释，长时记忆的遗忘则可能源于干扰（前摄干扰与倒摄干扰）或提取失败。情境依赖遗忘和状态依赖遗忘都是线索依赖遗忘的典型例子。
2. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Conformity refers to a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. Asch (1951) demonstrated that about 37% of participants conformed to an obviously incorrect majority in a line-judgement task, especially when the group was unanimous.
从众指由于真实或想象中的群体压力而导致行为或信念改变。阿希 (1951) 的线段判断实验表明，大约 37% 的参与者在群体成员一致给出明显错误答案时也会跟着给出错误答案。
Two key types of conformity are normative social influence (desire to be liked and accepted) and informational social influence (desire to be correct). Both were illustrated in Asch's variations and in Sheriff's (1935) autokinetic effect study, where group norms developed in ambiguous situations.
从众主要分为两类：规范式社会影响（渴望被喜欢和接纳）与信息式社会影响（渴望正确）。阿希实验的变式与谢里夫 (1935) 的游动效应研究都说明了这两种影响——在模糊情境下人们会形成群体规范。
Obedience to authority was studied by Milgram (1963), who found that 65% of participants delivered what they believed to be fatal shocks when ordered by an authority figure. Situational factors such as proximity, legitimacy of authority and the presence of disobedient peers dramatically affected obedience levels.
米尔格拉姆 (1963) 对服从权威的研究表明，65% 的参与者在权威人物指令下愿意对他人施加自认为是致命的电击。权威的合法性、物理距离、以及是否存在不服从的同伴等情境因素显著影响了服从水平。
3. Psychological Problems: Depression and Addiction | 心理问题：抑郁与成瘾
Unipolar depression is characterised by persistent low mood, loss of interest or pleasure (anhedonia), feelings of worthlessness, and changes in appetite or sleep. The biological explanation focuses on a deficiency of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, supported by the effectiveness of SSRIs. The cognitive explanation (Beck, 1967) proposes a negative triad of self, world and future.
单相抑郁症的特征是持续情绪低落、兴趣或愉悦感丧失（快感缺失）、无价值感以及食欲或睡眠变化。生物解释强调血清素等神经递质的不足，SSRI 类药物的有效性支持了这一观点。认知解释（贝克，1967）则提出了对自我、世界和未来的消极认知三联体。
CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) challenges irrational thoughts and uses behavioural activation. Wiles et al. (2013) found that CBT plus usual care was more effective than usual care alone for treatment-resistant depression. Ellis's ABC model (Activating event, Belief, Consequence) explains how irrational beliefs cause emotional distress.
认知行为疗法 (CBT) 挑战非理性想法并运用行为激活。怀尔斯等人 (2013) 发现，CBT 联合常规治疗对难治性抑郁症的效果优于仅常规治疗。埃利斯的 ABC 模型（激发事件、信念、后果）解释了非理性信念如何导致情绪困扰。
Addiction can be explained through biological mechanisms (dopamine reward pathway) and learning theories (operant conditioning and classical conditioning). Griffiths's (1994) study of gamblers identified cognitive biases such as the illusion of control and gambler's fallacy. Aversion therapy and CBT are used as treatments.
成瘾可以通过生物机制（多巴胺奖赏通路）和学习理论（操作性条件反射与经典条件反射）来解释。格里菲斯 (1994) 对赌博者的研究辨识出了控制错觉和赌徒谬误等认知偏差。厌恶疗法与 CBT 是常见的治疗方法。
4. Developmental Psychology: Attachment and Cognitive Development | 发展心理学：依恋与认知发展
Attachment is an emotional bond between infant and caregiver. Bowlby (1958) proposed that attachment is innate and has a critical period during the first two years. Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1970) identified three attachment types: secure (Type B), insecure-avoidant (Type A) and insecure-resistant (Type C).
依恋是婴儿与照料者之间的情感纽带。鲍尔比 (1958) 认为依恋是天生的，且在出生后头两年存在关键期。安斯沃思的陌生情境实验 (1970) 识别出三种依恋类型：安全型 (B 型)、不安全回避型 (A 型) 和不安全矛盾型 (C 型)。
Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes four distinct stages: sensorimotor (object permanence), pre-operational (egocentrism, lack of conservation), concrete operational (logical reasoning about concrete objects), and formal operational (abstract reasoning). Researchers such as Hughes (1975) challenged the age at which egocentrism appears with the policeman doll study.
皮亚杰的认知发展理论描述了四个不同的阶段：感知运动阶段（客体永久性）、前运算阶段（自我中心、缺乏守恒）、具体运算阶段（对具体物体进行逻辑推理）和形式运算阶段（抽象推理）。休斯 (1975) 通过警察玩偶研究对自我中心显现的年龄提出了挑战。
Vygotsky's alternative view stressed the role of social interaction and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), where a child can achieve more with guidance from a more knowledgeable other.
维果茨基的另一种观点强调社会互动和最近发展区 (ZPD) 的作用，即儿童在更有知识的人的引导下可以达到更高的成就水平。
5. Perception and Illusions | 感知与错觉
Sensation is the detection of physical stimuli by sense organs, whereas perception is the brain's interpretation of these sensations. Gregory's (1970) constructivist theory argues that perception is actively built using past experience and hypotheses, making it susceptible to visual illusions.
感觉是感觉器官对物理刺激的探测，而知觉是大脑对这些感觉信息的解释。格里高利 (1970) 的建构主义理论主张知觉是利用过去经验和假设主动建构的，因此容易受到视错觉的影响。
Gibson's (1966) direct theory of perception emphasises that all necessary information is available in the environment, such as texture gradients and optic flow, and that perception does not require inference.
吉布森 (1966) 的直接知觉理论强调环境中已有全部所需信息（如纹理梯度和光流），知觉不需要推理过程。
Visual illusions like the Ponzo, Müller-Lyer and Ames room can be explained using size constancy, misinterpreted depth cues and the role of cultural experience. Segall et al. (1966) found cross-cultural differences in susceptibility to the Müller-Lyer illusion.
庞佐错觉、缪勒-莱耶错觉和艾姆斯房间等视错觉可以用大小恒常性、深度线索误用和文化经验等因素来解释。西格尔等人 (1966) 发现，不同文化背景的人对缪勒-莱耶错觉的易感性存在差异。
6. Learning Theories: Classical and Operant Conditioning | 学习理论：经典条件反射与操作性条件反射
Classical conditioning, discovered by Pavlov (1927), involves learning through association. A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after being paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). The CS then produces a conditioned response (CR). Extinction, spontaneous recovery and generalisation are key phenomena.
巴甫洛夫 (1927) 发现的经典条件反射是通过建立联结进行学习。一个中性刺激与能自然引发无条件反应的无条件刺激反复配对后，变为条件刺激，单独呈现时引发条件反应。消退、自然恢复和泛化是关键现象。
Operant conditioning, developed by Skinner (1938), explains how behaviour is shaped by consequences. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behaviour, while punishment decreases it. Schedules of reinforcement (fixed or variable, interval or ratio) affect the rate and persistence of responding.
斯金纳 (1938) 提出的操作性条件反射解释了行为如何被后果塑造。正强化与负强化增加行为发生概率，惩罚则降低之。强化程序表（固定/可变、间隔/比率）影响反应的速率和持续性。
Phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning (e.g., Little Albert, Watson & Rayner, 1920) and maintained through operant conditioning (avoidance behaviour reduces anxiety, reinforcing the phobia). Systematic desensitisation and flooding are based on conditioning principles.
恐惧症可通过经典条件反射习得（如小阿尔伯特实验，华生与雷纳，1920），并通过操作性条件反射得以维持（回避行为减少焦虑，从而强化恐惧症）。系统脱敏与冲击疗法均以条件反射原理为基础。
7. Brain and Neuropsychology | 大脑与神经心理学
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Key brain areas include the frontal lobe (decision-making, personality), temporal lobe (auditory processing, memory), parietal lobe (sensory integration) and occipital lobe (vision). Broca's area and Wernicke's area are crucial for language production and comprehension, respectively.
中枢神经系统由脑和脊髓组成。关键脑区包括额叶（决策与人格）、颞叶（听觉加工与记忆）、顶叶（感觉整合）和枕叶（视觉）。布罗卡区和韦尼克区分别对语言产生和理解至关重要。
Neurons communicate through electrical impulses (action potentials) and chemical neurotransmitters at synapses. Neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and GABA have specific functions and are linked to mental health, addiction and sleep. The somatic and autonomic nervous systems control voluntary and involuntary actions.
神经元通过电冲动（动作电位）和突触处的化学神经递质进行通信。血清素、多巴胺、GABA 等神经递质具有特定功能，与心理健康、成瘾和睡眠有关。躯体神经系统与自主神经系统分别控制随意运动和内脏不随意活动。
Brain scanning techniques include MRI (structural imaging) and fMRI (functional imaging, detecting blood oxygen changes). Penfield's (1954) electrical stimulation of the cortex mapped sensory and motor areas, while case studies like Phineas Gage (1848) showed the role of the frontal lobe in personality.
脑部扫描技术包括 MRI（结构成像）和 fMRI（功能成像，检测血氧变化）。彭菲尔德 (1954) 通过电刺激大脑皮层测绘出感觉与运动区域，而菲尼亚斯·盖奇 (1848) 等个案研究则揭示了额叶在人格中的作用。
8. Research Methods and Ethics | 研究方法与伦理
Experiments (laboratory, field and natural) investigate cause-and-effect by manipulating an independent variable (IV) and measuring a dependent variable (DV). Control of extraneous variables is essential for internal validity. Standardised procedures and random allocation help reduce bias.
实验研究（实验室、现场和自然实验）通过操纵自变量、测量因变量来探究因果关系。控制额外变量对于确保内部效度至关重要。标准化程序和随机分配有助于减少偏差。
Non-experimental methods such as observations (covert or overt, participant or non-participant), questionnaires, interviews and case studies produce rich data but cannot establish causation. Correlational analysis shows the strength and direction of a relationship (from -1 to +1) but not cause.
非实验方法如观察（隐蔽或公开、参与或非参与）、问卷、访谈和个案研究能产生丰富的数据，但无法确定因果关系。相关分析显示关系的强度与方向（-1 到 +1），但不能推断因果。
Sampling techniques include random, opportunity, stratified and systematic sampling. Each has strengths in terms of representativeness and practicality.
抽样技术包括随机抽样、机会抽样、分层抽样和系统抽样。每种方法在代表性和可行性方面各有优劣。
Ethical guidelines set by the British Psychological Society (BPS) include informed consent, right to withdraw, deception and debriefing, protection from harm, and confidentiality. Researchers must ensure that benefits outweigh risks.
英国心理学会 (BPS) 制定的伦理准则包括知情同意、退出权、欺骗与事后解说、免受伤害和保密。研究者必须确保研究的收益大于风险。
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