📚 Year 12 AQA Law: Key Terminology Quick Reference Guide | AQA 法律：关键术语速记指南
Mastering legal terminology is essential for success in AQA Year 12 Law. This guide provides clear, concise definitions of the most important terms across the English legal system, criminal law and tort law. Use it to build a solid vocabulary foundation and improve your ability to recall key concepts quickly in essays and problem questions.
掌握法律术语对 AQA 12 年级法律课程的成功至关重要。本指南提供了英国法律制度、刑法和侵权法中最重要的术语的清晰简明定义。用它构建扎实的词汇基础，并提高你在论文和案例分析中快速回忆关键概念的能力。
1. Fundamentals of the English Legal System | 英国法律制度基础
Statute law: Law created by Parliament through the passing of Acts. It is the highest form of domestic law and can override common law principles.
制定法：由议会通过法案制定的法律。它是国内法的最高形式，可以推翻普通法原则。
Common law: Law developed by judges through decisions in individual cases. It is based on the doctrine of precedent and can be changed by statute.
普通法：由法官通过个案判决发展而来的法律。它以先例原则为基础，可被制定法修改。
Judicial precedent: The principle that courts must follow decisions made in higher courts in previous similar cases. The binding part of a judgment is the ratio decidendi.
司法先例：法院必须遵循上级法院在以往类似案件中作出的判决的原则。判决中有约束力的部分是判决理由。
Ratio decidendi: The legal reasoning or principle upon which a court's decision is based. It forms the binding precedent for future cases.
判决理由：法院判决所依据的法律推理或原则。它构成对未来案件有约束力的先例。
Obiter dicta: Comments made by a judge in a ruling that are not essential to the decision. These statements are not binding but may be persuasive in later cases.
附带意见：法官在裁决中作出的、对判决非必要的评论。这些陈述不具有约束力，但在后来的案件中可能具有说服力。
2. Sources of Law | 法律渊源
Legislation: A general term for laws enacted by a legislative body. Primary legislation refers to Acts of Parliament; secondary legislation (delegated) includes statutory instruments made by government ministers.
立法：立法机构颁布的法律的总称。一级立法指议会法案；二级立法（授权立法）包括政府大臣制定的法定文件。
Delegated legislation: Law made by a person or body other than Parliament, to whom Parliament has given law-making power in an enabling Act. Examples include orders in council, statutory instruments and by-laws.
授权立法：由议会通过授权法案授予立法权的非议会人员或机构制定的法律。例如枢密院令、法定文件和地方法规。
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR): An international treaty to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms, incorporated into UK law by the Human Rights Act 1998.
《欧洲人权公约》：一项保护人权和基本自由的国际条约，通过 1998 年《人权法》纳入英国法律。
Human Rights Act 1998: This Act allows UK courts to hear cases on Convention rights and requires legislation to be interpreted compatibly with the ECHR. Courts can issue a declaration of incompatibility.
1998 年《人权法》：该法允许英国法院审理涉及公约权利的案件，并要求立法须与《欧洲人权公约》兼容。法院可发布不兼容声明。
3. The Court Hierarchy | 法院等级体系
Supreme Court: The highest court in the UK legal system. It hears appeals on points of law of general public importance and its decisions bind all lower courts.
最高法院：英国法律体系中的最高级别法院。它审理具有普遍公共重要性的法律问题上诉，其判决对所有下级法院具有约束力。
Court of Appeal: Divided into Civil and Criminal Divisions, this court hears appeals from the High Court, Crown Court and certain tribunals. It is bound by the Supreme Court and its own previous decisions (with limited exceptions).
上诉法院：分为民事庭和刑事庭，负责审理来自高等法院、刑事法院和某些法庭的上诉。它受最高法院及其自身先前判决的约束（有少数例外）。
High Court: Has three divisions – Queen's Bench, Chancery and Family. It hears complex civil cases first instance and appeals from lower civil courts. It binds the lower courts and is bound by the appeal courts and Supreme Court.
高等法院：设有三个分庭——王座庭、大法官庭和家事庭。它一审审理复杂的民事案件，并受理下级民事法院的上诉。它约束下级法院，并受上诉法院和最高法院约束。
Crown Court: Deals with serious criminal offences (indictable offences) and sentencing. It also hears appeals against conviction and sentence from the Magistrates' Court.
刑事法院：处理严重刑事犯罪（可公诉罪）和量刑。它还审理来自治安法院的定罪和量刑上诉。
Magistrates' Court: The lowest criminal court, where all cases begin. It tries summary offences and some triable either way offences, and sends indictable offences to the Crown Court.
治安法院：最低级别的刑事法院，所有刑事案件均在此开始。它审理简易罪和部分可任意方式审理的罪行，并将可公诉罪移送刑事法院。
4. Criminal Law: General Principles | 刑法：一般原则
Actus reus: The physical element of a crime – the conduct, consequence or state of affairs that constitutes the prohibited act. It may require a voluntary act or an omission where a duty exists.
犯罪行为：犯罪的客观要素——构成被禁止行为的行为、后果或事态。它可能要求自愿行为或在存在义务情况下的不作为。
Mens rea: The mental element of a crime – the defendant's state of mind at the time of the offending. It ranges from intention and recklessness to negligence and strict liability (which requires no mens rea).
犯罪意图：犯罪的主观要素——被告在犯罪时的心理状态。从故意、轻率到过失，以及无需证明犯罪意图的严格责任。
Strict liability: Offences for which the prosecution need not prove mens rea as to at least one element of the actus reus. The defendant can be convicted even if they took all reasonable care. Common in regulatory offences.
严格责任：控方无需就犯罪行为的至少一项要素证明犯罪意图的罪行。即使被告已尽一切合理注意义务，仍可被定罪。常见于监管性犯罪。
Causation: The link between the defendant's conduct and the prohibited consequence. It requires both factual causation ('but for' test) and legal causation (the act must be a substantial and operating cause).
因果关系：被告行为与被禁止后果之间的联系。它要求事实因果关系（“若无则不”检验）和法律因果关系（行为必须是实质性且持续起作用的原因）。
Transferred malice: A doctrine whereby the defendant's mens rea directed at one person can be transferred to the unintended victim if the actus reus of the same crime is committed against that other person.
恶意转移：指被告针对某人的犯罪意图可以转移给非预期受害者的原则，条件是对该另一人实施了同一犯罪的犯罪行为。
5. Criminal Law: Non-Fatal Offences Against the Person | 刑法：非致命侵犯人身罪
Assault: Intentionally or recklessly causing the victim to apprehend immediate unlawful personal violence. No physical contact is required.
暴力威胁：故意或轻率地使受害者恐惧即将发生的非法人身暴力。无需实际身体接触。
Battery: Intentionally or recklessly applying unlawful force upon another person. Even the slightest touching without consent can constitute battery.
殴击：故意或轻率地对他人施加非法武力。未经同意的轻微触碰也可构成殴击。
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH): An offence under s.47 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. The actus reus is assault or battery causing 'actual bodily harm' – any hurt or injury calculated to interfere with the health or comfort of the victim.
暴力威胁致实际身体伤害 (ABH)：1861 年《侵犯人身罪法》第 47 条下的罪行。犯罪行为是造成“实际身体伤害”的暴力威胁或殴击——任何旨在妨碍受害者健康或舒适的伤害。
Grievous bodily harm (GBH) and wounding: Offences under s.20 (malicious wounding or inflicting GBH) and s.18 (wounding or causing GBH with intent). GBH means really serious harm. S.18 requires specific intent to cause GBH or resist arrest.
严重身体伤害 (GBH) 和创伤：第 20 条（恶意创伤或造成 GBH）和第 18 条（故意创伤或造成 GBH）下的罪行。GBH 指真正严重的伤害。第 18 条要求具有造成 GBH 或抗拒逮捕的特定故意。
6. Criminal Law: Property Offences | 刑法：财产犯罪
Theft: Defined in s.1 of the Theft Act 1968 as the dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another with the intention of permanently depriving the other of it. All five elements must be proven.
盗窃：1968 年《盗窃法》第 1 条定义为，以永久剥夺他人财产的意图，不诚实地占用属于他人的财产。必须证明全部五项要素。
Robbery: Under s.8 Theft Act 1968, robbery is theft aggravated by the use or threat of force immediately before or at the time of stealing, in order to steal.
抢劫：根据 1968 年《盗窃法》第 8 条，抢劫是在盗窃过程中为盗取而在使用暴力或以暴力相威胁的加重盗窃。
Burglary: There are two forms under s.9 Theft Act 1968: entering a building as a trespasser with intent to steal, inflict GBH or do unlawful damage (s.9(1)(a)); or having entered as a trespasser, stealing or inflicting GBH (s.9(1)(b)).
入室盗窃：根据 1968 年《盗窃法》第 9 条，有两种形式：作为侵入者进入建筑物，意图盗窃、造成 GBH 或进行非法毁坏（第 9(1)(a) 条）；或作为侵入者进入后，实施盗窃或造成 GBH（第 9(1)(b) 条）。
Criminal damage: Under s.1 Criminal Damage Act 1971, intentionally or recklessly destroying or damaging property belonging to another without lawful excuse. Aggravated form exists when life is endangered.
刑事毁坏：根据 1971 年《刑事毁坏法》第 1 条，无合法理由故意或轻率地毁坏或损坏属于他人的财产。当危及生命时存在加重形式。
7. Criminal Law: Defences | 刑法：抗辩事由
Self-defence: A common law and statutory defence allowing the use of reasonable force to protect oneself, another person or property. The force used must be proportionate to the threat as the defendant honestly believed it to be.
自卫：普通法和制定法上的抗辩，允许使用合理武力保护自己、他人或财产。使用的武力必须与被告诚实地相信的威胁成比例。
Intoxication: Voluntary intoxication is no defence to crimes of basic intent, but may negate the mens rea for crimes of specific intent if the defendant was so intoxicated that they could not form the required intent. Involuntary intoxication may provide a defence if it prevents mens rea.
醉酒：自愿醉酒不是基本意图犯罪的抗辩理由，但如果被告醉酒至无法形成特定意图犯罪所必需的主观意图，则可以否定该罪行的犯罪意图。非自愿醉酒若阻止犯罪意图的形成，则可提供抗辩。
Consent: Consent can provide a defence to certain offences against the person, such as battery and ABH, if genuine and informed. It is not a defence to GBH or wounding unless in lawful activities like surgery or sport.
同意：同意如果真实且知情，可为某些侵犯人身罪（如殴击和 ABH）提供抗辩。但不构成对 GBH 或创伤的抗辩，除非在手术或体育等合法活动中。
Duress: A defence where the defendant commits an offence because they were threatened with death or serious injury to themselves or another, and a reasonable person would have acted in the same way. Not available for murder, attempted murder or some treason offences.
胁迫：被告因受到本人或他人死亡或严重伤害的威胁而犯罪，且一般理性人在同样情况下也会如此行为的抗辩。不适用于谋杀、谋杀未遂或某些叛国罪。
8. Tort Law: Negligence | 侵权法：过失
Duty of care: A legal obligation to take reasonable care not to cause foreseeable harm to another. Established using the neighbour principle from Donoghue v Stevenson and the three-part Caparo test (foreseeability, proximity, fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty).
注意义务：法律上的义务，要求采取合理注意，不对他人造成可预见的损害。通过 Donoghue v Stevenson 案中的邻人原则和 Caparo 三重检验（可预见性、关联性、施加义务是否公平公正合理）确立。
Breach of duty: Occurs when the defendant falls below the standard of the reasonable person in a similar position. The court considers factors such as the likelihood of harm, the magnitude of risk and the practicality of precautions (the 'risk calculus').
违反义务：当被告的行为低于同等情况下一般理性人的标准时发生。法院会考虑损害发生的可能性、风险的大小以及采取预防措施的可行性（“风险计算”）。
Damage: In negligence, the claimant must prove that the breach caused the damage – both factual causation (but for test) and legal causation (remoteness – damage must be of a type that was reasonably foreseeable).
损害：在过失侵权中，原告必须证明违反义务造成了损害——既要满足事实因果关系（“若无则不”检验），也要满足法律因果关系（损害类型必须是合理可预见的）。
Caparo test: A three-stage test for establishing a duty of care in novel situations: (1) the harm must be reasonably foreseeable; (2) there must be a relationship of sufficient proximity; (3) it must be fair, just and reasonable for the court to impose a duty.
Caparo 检验：在新类型案件中确立注意义务的三阶段检验：（1）损害必须是合理可预见的；（2）必须有足够密切的关系；（3）法院施加义务必须是公平、公正和合理的。
9. Tort Law: Other Torts and Defences | 侵权法：其他侵权和抗辩
Private nuisance: An unlawful interference with a person's use or enjoyment of their land. The interference must be continuous and substantial, and the court balances the competing interests of neighbours.
私人妨害：对他人使用或享用其土地的不法干扰。干扰必须是持续且实质性的，法院会平衡相邻方的利益冲突。
Trespass to land: Direct and intentional interference with another's possession of land without lawful justification. It is actionable per se, meaning no proof of damage is required.
侵入土地：无合法理由直接且故意地干扰他人对其土地的占有。该侵权本身可诉，即无需证明实际损害。
Occupiers' liability: The duty owed by occupiers of premises to lawful visitors (Occupiers' Liability Act 1957) and to trespassers (Occupiers' Liability Act 1984). The standard varies, with a higher duty owed to visitors.
占用人责任：场所占用人对合法访客（1957 年《占用人责任法》）和侵入者（1984 年《占用人责任法》）所负的义务。标准有所区别，对访客的义务更高。
Volenti non fit injuria: A complete defence meaning 'to a willing person, no injury is done'. The claimant freely consented to the risk of harm with full knowledge of its nature and extent.
风险自愿：一项完全抗辩，意为“对自愿者不构成侵害”。原告在完全了解伤害的性质和范围的情况下，自愿同意承担该风险。
Contributory negligence: A partial defence where the claimant's own failure to take reasonable care contributed to their damage. Damages are reduced by a percentage reflecting the claimant's share of responsibility.
共同过失：一项部分抗辩，指原告自身未能尽到合理注意而导致损害的发生。赔偿金额将根据原告的责任比例相应扣减。
10. Legal Personnel and Procedures | 法律人员和程序
Barrister: A lawyer who specialises in advocacy in court and providing expert legal opinions. They are typically instructed by solicitors and have full rights of audience in all courts.
出庭律师：专门从事法庭辩护和提供专家法律意见的律师。他们通常由事务律师委托，并在所有法院享有完全的出庭发言权。
Solicitor: The first point of contact for clients; they provide legal advice, prepare cases and may represent clients in lower courts. They now have extended rights of audience in higher courts after obtaining accreditation.
事务律师：客户的第一接触点；他们提供法律咨询、准备案件，并可在下级法院代表客户。获得认证后，他们在上级法院的出庭发言权现已扩大。
Jury: A group of 12 randomly selected lay people in the Crown Court who decide questions of fact and reach a verdict based on the evidence. Juries also serve in some civil cases and inquests.
陪审团：在刑事法院随机选出的 12 名普通民众组成的小组，负责决定事实问题，并基于证据作出裁决。陪审团也参与某些民事案件和死因聆讯。
Magistrates: Unpaid lay justices who sit in the Magistrates' Court to hear summary offences and some either way cases. They are advised on points of law by a legal adviser. District judges are legally qualified magistrates.
治安法官：在治安法院审理简易罪和部分可任意选择审理方式案件的无薪非专业法官。他们就法律问题接受法律顾问的建议。区域法官是具有法律资格的治安法官。
Sentencing: The process through which a court imposes a punishment on a convicted defendant. Aims include punishment, deterrence, rehabilitation, protection of the public and reparation. Sentences range from discharges to life imprisonment.
量刑：法院对被定罪的被告处以刑罚的程序。目标包括惩罚、威慑、改造、保护公众和修复。刑罚范围从释放到终身监禁。
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