📚 Year 12 AQA Psychology: Core Content Overview | Year 12 AQA 心理学：核心知识点梳理
Understanding AQA Psychology at Year 12 means grasping a wide range of topics, from the way we are influenced by others to the intricate workings of our memory and brain. This article consolidates the essential knowledge that every student needs to master, presenting each core area in clear, bilingual pairings to support both learning and revision.
理解 AQA 心理学 Year 12 课程，意味着掌握从社会他人影响方式到我们记忆与大脑精细运作的广泛主题。本文整合了每位学生必须掌握的核心知识，以清晰的中英双语对照呈现，助力学习与复习。
1. Social Influence: Conformity | 社会影响：从众
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. Kelman (1958) proposed three types: compliance (public agreement but private disagreement), identification (temporary change to fit a valued group), and internalisation (genuine acceptance of group norms).
从众指因真实的或想象到的群体压力而导致的行为或信念的改变。Kelman (1958) 提出了三种从众类型：顺从（公开同意但私下不同意）、认同（为了融入重视的群体而短暂改变）和内化（真正接受群体规范）。
Asch (1951) demonstrated normative social influence through his line-judgment experiments, where participants conformed to an obviously wrong majority on 37% of critical trials. Variations showed that group size, unanimity, and task difficulty all influence conformity levels.
Asch (1951) 通过线条判断实验展示了规范性社会影响，参与者在 37% 的关键试验中屈从于明显错误的多数意见。实验变式表明，群体规模、一致性以及任务难度都会影响从众水平。
Informational social influence occurs when we look to others in ambiguous situations, believing they have more knowledge. This is linked to internalisation, as seen in Sherif's (1935) autokinetic effect study, where group norms persisted even when participants were later tested alone.
信息性社会影响发生在情境模糊时我们参考他人，认为他们掌握更多知识。这与内化相连，如在 Sherif (1935) 的游动效应研究中，群体规范甚至在参与者后来单独测试时依然持续。
2. Social Influence: Obedience and Resistance | 社会影响：服从与反抗
Milgram (1963) investigated destructive obedience by asking participants to administer increasing electric shocks to a 'learner'. Remarkably, 65% of participants went up to the maximum 450V, showing the power of legitimate authority and the agentic state, where individuals see themselves as agents of others' will.
Milgram (1963) 通过让参与者对“学习者”施加逐次增强的电击来研究破坏性服从。值得注意的是，65% 的参与者一直进行到最高 450V，显示出合法权威的力量以及代理状态，即个体视自己为他人意志的代理人。
Situational factors affecting obedience include proximity of the authority figure, the presence of disobedient confederates, and the location of the study. For example, when the experimenter gave orders by telephone, obedience dropped to 20.5%.
影响服从的情境因素包括权威人物的接近性、不服从的同伴在场以及研究地点。例如，当实验者通过电话下达命令时，服从率降至 20.5%。
Resistance to social influence can come from social support (the presence of allies weakens both conformity and obedience) and an internal locus of control, where individuals believe they control their own outcomes and are more likely to resist pressure.
对社会影响的抵抗可能来自社会支持（盟友的存在会削弱从众和服从）以及内在控制点，即个体相信自己能够掌控结果，因而更可能抵制压力。
3. Memory: The Multi-Store Model and Working Memory | 记忆：多存储模型与工作记忆
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves from STM to LTM through rehearsal, and forgetting occurs due to decay or displacement.
多存储模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968）描述了三个独立的存储：感觉登记、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。信息通过复述从 STM 转移到 LTM，遗忘则源于衰退或替代。
STM has a limited capacity (7±2 chunks) and duration (about 18– opped dramatically after 18 seconds when rehearsal was prevented, using a distractor task.
STM 的容量有限（7±2 组块），持续时间短暂（无复述时约 18–30 秒）。Peterson & Peterson (1959) 发现，在阻止复述的情况下，18 秒后回忆率大幅下降，实验使用了干扰任务。
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) proposed the working memory model, an active system comprising the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer. It explains how we can perform two tasks simultaneously if they use different slave systems, such as repeating a word while reading.
Baddeley & Hitch (1974) 提出了工作记忆模型，这是一个由中央执行器、语音回路、视觉空间画板和情境缓冲器组成的主动系统。它解释了为何我们可以同时进行两项任务，只要它们使用不同的从属系统，比如一边重复单词一边阅读。
4. Memory: Explanations for Forgetting | 记忆：遗忘的解释
Interference theory suggests forgetting occurs because similar memories disrupt each other. Proactive interference happens when old learning disrupts new recall, while retroactive interference is when new learning disrupts old recall. McGeoch & McDonald (1931) showed that interference increases as similarity between materials rises.
干扰理论认为遗忘源于相似记忆相互扰乱。前摄干扰是旧学习影响新回忆，而后摄干扰则是新学习扰乱旧记忆。McGeoch & McDonald (1931) 表明，材料相似性越高，干扰越严重。
Retrieval failure occurs when information is available in LTM but cannot be accessed due to a lack of cues. Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) found that providing category cues significantly improved recall. Context-dependent failure (e.g., learning on land vs. underwater recall) and state-dependent failure (e.g., drunk vs. sober) illustrate the importance of encoding specificity.
提取失败指信息虽存于长时记忆，但因缺乏线索而无法访问。Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) 发现，提供类别线索显著提高了回忆。情境依赖性失败（如陆地学习与水下回忆）和状态依赖性失败（如醉酒与清醒）展示了编码特异性的重要性。
5. Attachment: Caregiver-Infant Interactions and Stages | 依恋：照看者与婴儿互动及阶段
Attachment is a deep emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver. Reciprocity describes turn-taking interaction, while interactional synchrony refers to the coordinated mirroring of actions and emotions, as observed by Meltzoff & Moore (1977) with infants as young as two weeks.
依恋是婴儿与主要照看者之间形成的深刻情感纽带。互惠性描述了轮流式互动，而互动同步性则指动作和情感的协调镜像，Meltzoff & Moore (1977) 观察到仅两周大的婴儿就能做到。
Schaffer & Emerson (1964) identified four stages of attachment: pre-attachment (0–6 weeks), indiscriminate attachment (6 weeks–7 months), specific attachment (7–11 months with separation anxiety and stranger anxiety), and multiple attachments (after 11 months). Their Glasgow study showed that attachments are often formed with the parent who provides the most sensitive responsiveness.
Schaffer & Emerson (1964) 确定了依恋的四个阶段：前依恋（0–6 周）、无差别依恋（6 周–7 个月）、特定依恋（7–11 个月，伴随分离焦虑和陌生人焦虑）和多重依恋（11 个月后）。他们在格拉斯哥的研究表明，依恋通常形成于提供最敏感回应的养育者。
6. Attachment: Types and Cultural Variations | 依恋：类型与文化差异
Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1978) identified three main attachment types: secure (happy to explore, distressed when caregiver leaves, easily comforted), insecure-avoidant (ignores caregiver, no distress, indifferent on reunion), and insecure-resistant (clingy, extreme distress, ambivalent on reunion). Later, a fourth type, disorganised, was added by Main & Solomon.
Ainsworth 的陌生情境法 (1978) 确定了三种主要依恋类型：安全型（乐于探索，照看者离开时不安，易于安抚）、不安全-回避型（忽视照看者，无痛苦，重逢时冷漠）和不安全-反抗型（黏人，极度痛苦，重逢时矛盾）。后来 Main & Solomon 增加了第四种——混乱型。
Cultural variations in attachment have been studied by van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988), who meta-analysed Strange Situation studies from eight countries. They found that secure attachment was the most common in all cultures, but individualist cultures (e.g., Germany) showed higher rates of insecure-avoidant, while collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan) had more insecure-resistant, reflecting different caregiving norms.
van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) 通过元分析研究了依恋的文化差异，涉及八个国家的陌生情境法研究。他们发现，安全依恋在所有文化中最为常见，但个人主义文化（如德国）显示出更高的不安全-回避型比例，而集体主义文化（如日本）则有更多的不安全-反抗型，反映了不同的照料规范。
7. Psychopathology: Defining Abnormality and Phobias | 精神病理学：异常定义与恐惧症
Four definitions of abnormality include: statistical infrequency (rare traits, e.g., very low IQ), deviation from social norms (behaviour violating unwritten rules), failure to function adequately (inability to cope with daily life, measured by Rosenhan & Seligman's criteria), and deviation from ideal mental health (failure to meet Jahoda's six criteria, such as self-actualisation).
异常行为的四个定义包括：统计罕见性（罕见特质，如极低智商）、偏离社会规范（违反不成文规则的行为）、功能发挥不良（无法应对日常生活，根据 Rosenhan & Seligman 的标准评判）以及偏离理想心理健康（未能达到 Jahoda 的六项标准，如自我实现）。
Phobias are characterised by excessive fear and avoidance triggered by a specific object or situation, with symptoms falling into behavioural (panic, avoidance), emotional (anxiety, unreasonable fear), and cognitive (irrational thoughts, recognition of irrationality) categories. The two-process model (Mowrer, 1947) explains acquisition through classical conditioning and maintenance through operant conditioning, while systematic desensitisation and flooding are behavioural treatments based on counterconditioning.
恐惧症的特征是由特定物体或情境引发的过度恐惧和回避，症状分为行为（恐慌、回避）、情绪（焦虑、不合理恐惧）和认知（非理性想法、意识到不合理）三类。双过程模型 (Mowrer, 1947) 以经典条件作用解释获得，操作性条件作用解释维持，而系统脱敏和冲击疗法则是基于反条件作用的行为治疗。
8. Psychopathology: Depression and OCD | 精神病理学：抑郁症与强迫症
Depression involves persistent low mood and loss of interest, with emotional (sadness, worthlessness), cognitive (negative schemas, poor concentration), and behavioural (reduced activity, sleep disturbance) characteristics. Beck's cognitive theory proposes the negative triad (negative view of self, world, and future) and faulty information processing, while Ellis's ABC model emphasises irrational beliefs activated by events.
抑郁症涉及持续的情绪低落和兴趣丧失，具有情绪（悲伤、无价值感）、认知（负面图式、注意力差）和行为（活动减少、睡眠紊乱）特征。Beck 的认知理论提出了负面三联（对自我、世界和未来的负面看法）和错误的信息加工，而 Ellis 的 ABC 模型则强调由事件激活的非理性信念。
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is marked by obsessions (intrusive, recurring thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviours performed to reduce anxiety). Biological explanations focus on genetic vulnerability (the COMT and SERT genes), abnormal brain circuits (the orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia), and neurotransmitter imbalances (low serotonin). Drug therapies, particularly SSRIs, increase serotonin levels in the synaptic cleft to alleviate symptoms.
强迫症（OCD）的显著特征是强迫思维（侵入性、反复出现的想法）和强迫行为（为减轻焦虑而进行的重复行为）。生物学的解释聚焦于遗传易感性（COMT 和 SERT 基因）、异常脑回路（眶额皮层和基底神经节）以及神经递质失衡（低血清素）。药物疗法，尤其是 SSRI，通过增加突触间隙的血清素水平来缓解症状。
9. Approaches in Psychology: Major Perspectives | 心理学方法：主要取向
The behaviourist approach emphasises observable behaviour and environmental determinants. Classical conditioning (Pavlov) involves learning by association, as in Little Albert's conditioning of a phobia (Watson & Rayner, 1920). Operant conditioning (Skinner) describes learning through consequences, using reinforcement (positive/negative to increase behaviour) and punishment (to decrease it).
行为主义取向强调可观察行为和环境决定因素。经典条件作用（Pavlov）涉及通过联想学习，例如小阿尔伯特的恐惧症条件化（Watson & Rayner, 1920）。操作性条件作用（Skinner）描述了通过后果进行的学习，使用强化（正强化/负强化以增加行为）和惩罚（以减少行为）。
The cognitive approach investigates internal mental processes like memory, perception, and thinking. It uses theoretical models (e.g., the multi-store model) and computer analogies, inferring what happens in the mind. Schemas are cognitive frameworks that help us process information but can lead to biased thinking.
认知取向研究内部心理过程，如记忆、知觉和思维。它使用理论模型（如多存储模型）和计算机类比，推断头脑中发生的情况。图式是帮助我们处理信息的认知框架，但也可能导致带有偏见的思考。
The biological approach explains behaviour through genetics, brain structures, neurochemistry, and evolution. Twin studies reveal genetic influences (e.g., concordance rates for schizophrenia in monozygotic vs dizygotic twins), and neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine are linked to mood and movement disorders. The genotype and phenotype distinction highlights how environment interacts with genes.
生物学取向通过遗传、脑结构、神经化学和进化来解释行为。双生子研究揭示了遗传影响（如单卵与双卵双胞胎在精神分裂症上的同病率），而神经递质如血清素和多巴胺与情绪及运动障碍相关。基因型与表现型的区分突显了环境如何与基因相互作用。
10. Biopsychology: The Nervous System and Endocrine System | 生物心理学：神经系统与内分泌系统
The human nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS, comprising the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS, transmitting messages to and from the CNS). The PNS splits further into the somatic (voluntary muscle control) and autonomic (involuntary, regulates internal organs) systems, with the autonomic branching into sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions.
人类神经系统分为中枢神经系统（CNS，包括脑和脊髓）和外周神经系统（PNS，向 CNS 发送和传递信息）。PNS 进一步分为躯体神经系统（控制随意肌肉）和自主神经系统（非自愿，调节内脏器官），自主神经系统又分为交感神经分支（唤起）和副交感神经分支（平复）。
The endocrine system secretes hormones into the bloodstream, providing slower but longer-lasting effects than neural communication. The pituitary gland, often called the 'master gland', controls other glands. During the fight-or-flight response, the adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline, increasing heart rate and energy supplies, while the sympathetic nervous system is activated.
内分泌系统将激素分泌到血液中，作用比神经通讯慢但更持久。垂体常被称为“主腺”，控制着其他腺体。在战斗或逃跑反应中，肾上腺髓质释放肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素，提高心率和能量供应，同时交感神经系统被激活。
11. Research Methods: Key Concepts and Ethics | 研究方法：核心概念与伦理
Psychological research uses experimental methods (lab, field, natural, quasi-experiments) to establish cause-and-effect relationships. Independent variables (IV) are manipulated, and dependent variables (DV) are measured. Control of extraneous variables and use of standardised procedures ensure validity. Confounding variables, when uncontrolled, threaten internal validity.
心理学研究使用实验方法（实验室、现场、自然实验、准实验）来确定因果关系。自变量（IV）被操纵，因变量（DV）被测量。控制额外变量和使用标准化程序确保效度。混淆变量若未得到控制，会威胁内部效度。
Observational techniques, self-report methods (questionnaires, interviews), and correlations are non-experimental methods. Correlations describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two co-variables but cannot infer causation. The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1.
观察技术、自我报告方法（问卷、访谈）及相关研究属于非实验方法。相关描述两个共变量之间关系的强度和方向，但不能推断因果关系。相关系数范围从 -1 到 +1。
Ethical considerations are guided by the British Psychological Society's code of conduct, including informed consent, deception avoidance, protection from harm, and the right to withdraw. Cost-benefit analyses are used when ethically questionable studies, such as Milgram's, are considered. Debriefing is essential to restore participants to their pre-study state.
伦理考量遵循英国心理学会的行为准则，包括知情同意、避免欺骗、保护免受伤害和退出权。在考虑如 Milgram 研究这样伦理存疑的研究时，会使用成本效益分析。事后解释对于将参与者恢复至研究前状态至关重要。
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