📚 Year 12 AQA Chemistry: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 12 AQA 化学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook compiles the essential formulas, equations and theorems required for Year 12 AQA Chemistry. It is designed to support revision of physical chemistry, energetics, kinetics, equilibria, acids and bases, redox, and analytical techniques. Each formula is presented with standard notation and practical tips for problem‑solving.
本速查手册汇总了 Year 12 AQA 化学所需的基本公式、方程和定理，旨在帮助复习物理化学、能量学、动力学、平衡、酸碱、氧化还原及分析技术。每条公式均给出了标准写法与实际应用提示，便于高效查阅。
1. Moles and Molar Mass | 摩尔与摩尔质量
e SI unit for amount of substance. One mole of any species contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles – this is the Avogadro constant, symbol L or NA.
摩尔（mol）是物质的量的单位。1 摩尔任何微粒都含有 6.022 × 10²³ 个基本单元，这就是阿伏伽德罗常数，符号为 L 或 NA。
The core equation linking mass, amount and molar mass is:
n = m / M
where n is the amount in mol, m is the mass in grams (g), and M is the molar mass in g mol⁻¹. You can rearrange this to find mass or molar mass.
核心关系式为 n = m / M，其中 n 为物质的量 (mol)，m 为质量 (g)，M 为摩尔质量 (g mol⁻¹)。可灵活变形求解质量或摩尔质量。
For gases at room temperature and pressure (RTP, 298 K and 100 kPa), the molar volume Vₘ is taken as 24.0 dm³ mol⁻¹ (AQA data).
n = V / Vₘ
where V is the volume of the gas in dm³. At standard temperature and pressure (STP, 273 K and 100 kPa) Vₘ is 22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹, but AQA consistently uses the RTP value.
在室温和常压（RTP, 298 K, 100 kPa）下，气体的摩尔体积 Vₘ = 24.0 dm³ mol⁻¹（AQA 使用此值）。n = V / Vₘ，V 为气体体积 (dm³)。标准状况 (273 K, 100 kPa) 下 Vₘ = 22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹，但考试优先使用 RTP 数据。
Particle number N is related to the amount by:
N = n × L
6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹. This is used when interpreting the number of atoms, ions or molecules.
微粒数 N = n × L，L = 6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹。常在计算原子、离子或分子个数时使用。
2. Concentration and Dilution | 浓度与稀释
The concentration of a solution, c, is defined as the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solution.
c = n / V
where c is in mol dm⁻³, n is the amount in mol, and V is the volume in dm³. Remember to convert cm³ to dm³ by dividing by 1000.
溶液浓度 c = n / V，c 的单位为 mol dm⁻³，n 为溶质的物质的量 (mol)，V 为溶液体积 (dm³)。计算时需将 cm³ 转换为 dm³ (÷1000)。
For dilutions, the amount of solute remains constant, giving the relationship:
c₁V₁ = c₂V₂
where c₁ and V₁ refer to the initial concentrated solution, and c₂ and V₂ refer to the diluted solution. This is widely used when preparing standard solutions.
稀释过程中溶质的物质的量不变，因此 c₁V₁ = c₂V₂，c₁、V₁ 为稀释前的浓度和体积，c₂、V₂ 为稀释后的浓度和体积。常用于配制标准溶液。
In acid– he reacting mole ratio from the balanced equation then converts between the two reactants.
在酸碱滴定中，用 n = cV 求出酸或碱的物质的量，再根据配平方程的计量比进行换算。
3. Ideal Gas Equation | 理想气体方程
The behaviour of an ideal gas under changing conditions is described by the ideal gas equation:
pV = nRT
ure in kelvin (K). Always convert temperature to K (K = °C + 273) and pressure to Pa (1 kPa = 1000 Pa). Volume must be in m³ (1 m³ = 1000 dm³).
理想气体方程为 pV = nRT，其中 p 为压强 (Pa)，V 为体积 (m³)，n 为物质的量 (mol)，R 为气体常数 8.31 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹，T 为热力学温度 (K)。务必把温度转换为 K (K = °C + 273)，压强转换为 Pa (1 kPa = 1000 Pa)，体积转换为 m³ (1 m³ = 1000 dm³)。
In a mixture of gases, the partial pressure of a component A is given by:
pA = xA × Ptotal
where xA = nA / ntotal (mole fraction) and Ptotal is the total pressure. The sum of all mole fractions in a mixture equals 1.
气体混合物中，组分 A 的分压 pA = xA × Ptotal，其中 xA = nA / ntotal 为物质的量分数，Ptotal 为总压。所有组分的物质的量分数之和等于 1。
4. Yield and Atom Economy | 产率与原子经济性
The percentage yield compares the actual amount of product obtained with the maximum theoretical amount.
% Yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100
Both yields are usually expressed in moles or grams. A yield below 100% indicates incomplete reaction, side reactions or product loss during purification.
百分产率 = (实际产量 / 理论产量) × 100，产量通常以 mol 或 g 表示。产率低于 100% 说明反应不完全、发生副反应或纯化时有损失。
Atom economy measures how efficiently atoms in the reactants are incorporated into the desired product.
% Atom economy = (Mr of desired product / sum of Mr of all reactants
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