📚 Key Terminology Quick Revision Guide for Year 12 Edexcel Philosophy | Year 12 Edexcel 哲学词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to your quick revision guide for Year 12 Edexcel Philosophy. Mastering key terminology is essential for analysing arguments and writing high-scoring essays. This guide covers the most important terms from the Philosophy of Religion and Ethics components, each paired with clear definitions and simple memory aids to boost your recall.
欢迎使用 Year 12 Edexcel 哲学词汇速记指南。掌握关键术语对于分析论证和撰写高分论文至关重要。本指南涵盖了宗教哲学与伦理学模块中最重要的术语，每个术语都配有清晰的定义和简单的记忆方法，帮助你高效复习。
1. Arguments for the Existence of God | 上帝存在的论证
The ontological argument, proposed by Anselm, defines God as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". It argues that existence is a perfection and must be a property of the greatest conceivable being, so God necessarily exists. (Memory aid: "Onto-" relates to being; think of the logic of being forcing existence.)
本体论论证由安瑟伦提出，将上帝定义为“无法设想比之更伟大的存在”。它论证存在是一种完满性，必然是这最伟大可设想者的属性，因此上帝必然存在。（记忆法：“本体论”关乎存在，存在的逻辑逼迫其必然实存。）
The cosmological argument, such as Aquinas' Therefore, there must be a first uncaused cause, which is identified as God. (Memory aid: "Cosmos" = universe; the argument begins from the cosmos moving back to a first cause.)
宇宙论论证，如阿奎那的第一因论证，认为宇宙中的一切事物都有原因，而原因的无限回溯是不可能的。因此，必须有一个不被其他事物推动的第一因，那就是上帝。（记忆法：“宇宙”= cosmos；论证从宇宙回溯至第一因。）
der, complexity and purpose in the natural world, inferring an intelligent designer. Paley' just as a watch implies a watchmaker, the universe implies a divine designer. (Memory aid: "Teleology" = study of purpose, from telos; a tele-scope helps us see design.)
目的论（设计）论证指出自然界中显见的秩序、复杂性和目的，由此推断有一位智能设计者。佩利的手表类比就是例证：正如手表意味着有制表匠，宇宙也意味着有位神圣设计者。（记忆法：“目的论”关乎目的，telos 即目的；望远镜让我们看见设计。）
2. Problem of Evil and Suffering | 邪恶与苦难问题
If God can prevent evil but does not, He is not all-good; if He cannot, He is not all-powerful. (Memory aid: Logical problem = strict inconsistency, like a square circle.)
逻辑邪恶问题认为，邪恶的存在与全能、全善的上帝的存在在逻辑上不相容。如果上帝能阻止邪恶却没有阻止，他就不是全善的；如果他不能，他就不是全能的。（记忆法：逻辑问题 = 严格矛盾，像方形的圆。）
might be logically compatible, but the sheer amount and distribution of suffering make God's existence highly improbable. Rowe' suffering. (Memory aid: Evidential = evidence of pointless suffering makes God unlikely.)
证据邪恶问题承认上帝与邪恶在逻辑上可能共存，但苦难的巨大数量和分布使上帝的存在极其不可能。罗伊举例的森林大火中死去的幼鹿突显了无谓的苦难。（记忆法：证据 = 无谓苦难的证据使上帝不大可能存在。）
A theodicy is an attempt to justify God's goodness and power in the face of evil. Augustine' ributes evil to the misuse of free will and sees it as a privation of good, while Irenaeus' theodicy views evil as necessary for soul-making and moral growth. (Memory aid: Theodicy = "God-justice", a defence of God's ways.)
神正论是面对邪恶时为上帝的良善和能力辩护的尝试。奥古斯丁的神正论将邪恶归因于自由意志的滥用，视其为善的缺失；而爱任纽的神正论认为邪恶是灵魂塑造和道德成长所必需的。（记忆法：神正论 = “神之正义”。）
3. Religious Language | 宗教语言
ranscendent nature. We say God is not finite, not evil, etc. (Memory aid: Negativa = negative; describe God through negations.)
否定之道主张只能用否定语词描述上帝，因为人类语言不足以捕捉其超越的本质。我们说上帝不是有限的、不是邪恶的等。（记忆法：否定之道 = 用否定词描述。）
The analogy approach, advocated by Aquinas, argues that when we apply terms like "good" tween human and divine language. (Memory aid: Analogy = similar but not identical meaning.)
类比法由阿奎那倡导，主张当我们把“善”这类词语用于上帝时，它们是类比地使用，而非单义或歧义地使用。归因类比和比例类比弥合了人神语言之间的鸿沟。（记忆法：类比 = 相似但不完全相同的意义。）
ically verifiable. Ayer argued that religious statements fail this criterion and are therefore meaningless. (Memory aid: Verify = check; religious claims cannot be checked by senses or logic alone.)
证实原则（逻辑实证主义）声称，一个陈述只有分析性（定义上为真）或可通过经验证实时才具有意义。艾耶尔认为宗教陈述不符合这一标准，因此是无意义的。（记忆法：证实 = 检查；宗教断言无法单凭感官或逻辑核实。）
4. Life after Death | 死后生命
eath of the physical body. This supports the possibility of an afterlife. (Memory aid: Dualism = two substances, mind and body separate.)
实体二元论，由笛卡尔等哲学家捍卫，主张心灵（灵魂）是一个独特的非物质实体，可以在肉体死亡后继续存在。这支持了来世的可能。（记忆法：二元论 = 两种实体，身心分离。）
rain dies, so there is no personal survival after death. (Memory aid: Materialism = only matter; no ghost in the machine.)
唯物主义/物理主义认为心灵并非独立的实体，而是大脑过程的产物。大脑死亡时意识就停止了，因此死后没有个人存续。（记忆法：唯物主义 = 只有物质；机器里没有幽灵。）
h. Unlike dualism, it insists on bodily continuity through divine power. (Memory aid: Resurrection = rebirth of the whole person, not just soul.)
复活观是基督教的核心，主张上帝将在死后重造整个人，包括身体和灵魂，进入一种转化状态。与二元论不同，它强调通过神的大能实现身体的延续性。（记忆法：复活 = 整个人重生，不只是灵魂。）
5. Normative Ethical Theories: Utilitarianism | 规范伦理理论：功利主义
sing that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or utility. Bentham's act utilitarianism applies the hedonic calculus to each individual act. (Memory aid: "Utility" = usefulness, greatest happiness for the greatest number.)
功利主义是一种后果论，主张正确的行为是最大化总体幸福或效用的行为。边沁的行为功利主义将幸福计算应用于每个具体行为。（记忆法：“功利”= 效用，为最大多数人创造最大幸福。）
Mill' his avoids some counter-intuitive consequences of act utilitarianism. (Memory aid: Rule = follow good rules, don't recalculate every time.)
密尔的规则功利主义主张，我们应该遵循那些往往能促进最大幸福的普遍规则，而非对每个行为进行计算。这避免了行为功利主义的一些反直觉后果。（记忆法：规则 = 遵循良善规则，不必每次都重新计算。）
The hedonic calculus is Bentham's method for measuring pleasure and pain produced by an action, considering seven factors: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. (Memory aid: Seven factors; memorise initials I.D., C.P., F.P., E.)
幸福计算是边沁用来衡量一个行为所产生的快乐和痛苦的方法，考量七个因素：强度、持续时间、确定性、邻近性、繁殖性、纯度和范围。（记忆法：七因素，缩写可助忆。）
6. Normative Ethical Theories: Kantian Ethics | 规范伦理理论：康德伦理学
d will is the only thing good without qualification. (Memory aid: Deontology = duty-based; "deon" means duty.)
康德伦理学是义务论的：行为的道德价值在于其背后的动机，而非后果。善良意志是唯一无条件的善。（记忆法：义务论 = 基于义务；“deon”意为义务。）
categorical imperative is the supreme principle of morality. Its first formulation states: " to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." missible. (Memory aid: Categorical = absolute, no exceptions; test with universalisation.)
定言命令是道德的最高原则。第一公式表述为：“只依照你同时愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。”构想中的或意愿中的矛盾将揭示行为是不被允许的。（记忆法：定言 = 绝对，无例外；用普遍化检验。）
nd in itself and never merely as a means. This enshrines respect for persons. (Memory aid: "End in itself" = don't use people purely as tools.)
定言命令的第二公式要求我们始终将人（无论自己还是他人）作为目的本身来对待，而绝不仅仅当作手段。这体现了对人的尊重。（记忆法：“目的本身” = 不把人纯粹当工具。）
7. Normative Ethical Theories: Virtue Ethics | 规范伦理理论：德性伦理
on would do, and emphasises the cultivation of virtues. (Memory aid: Virtue = character traits, like a good person's habits.)
德性伦理受亚里士多德启发，关注道德主体的品格，而非规则或后果。它追问有德性的人会怎么做，并强调品德的培养。（记忆法：德性 = 品格特征，如好人的习惯。）
Eudaimonia is often translated as "flourishing" or "well-being" n accordance with virtue. (Memory aid: Eudaimonia = human flourishing, not just pleasure.)
eudaimonia 常译为“繁荣”或“福祉”，是人类的终极目的。它是一种通过按照德性的理性活动而实现的活得好、做得好的人生状态。（记忆法：eudaimonia = 人的繁荣，不仅仅是快乐。）
recklessness. Virtue lies in finding the right balance relative to the situation. (Memory aid: Mean = middle; aim for the balanced response.)
中道是两极端（过度与不及）之间的理想中间状态。例如，勇敢是怯懦和鲁莽之间的中道。德性在于根据具体情况找到正确的平衡。（记忆法：中道 = 中间；追求平衡的回应。）
8. Metaethics: Cognitivism and Non-Cognitivism | 元伦理学：认知主义与非认知主义
hat moral properties are natural properties that can be empirically observed. For example, "good" might mean "what tends to promote pleasure" false. (Memory aid: Naturalism = moral facts are part of the natural world, like science.)
伦理自然主义（认知主义）主张道德属性是可以经验观察的自然属性。例如，“善”可能意味着“倾向于产生快乐的东西”。它将道德陈述视为事实性的，可为真或假。（记忆法：自然主义 = 道德事实是自然界的一部分，如同科学。）
Intuitionism, defended by G.E. Moore, is cognitivist but non-naturalist. It holds that "good" is a simple, indefinable property known by intuition. Moore' ows that good cannot be reduced to any natural property. (Memory aid: Intuition = you just "see" goodness; open question keeps it undefined.)
直觉主义由 G.E.摩尔捍卫，是认知主义但非自然主义的。它主张“善”是一种简单的、不可定义的、由直觉认识的性质。摩尔的开放问题论证表明善不能被还原为任何自然属性。（记忆法：直觉 = 你直接“看出”善；开放问题使其保持不可定义。）
ts do not express propositions but instead vent emotions or prescribe attitudes. Ayer said "murder is wrong" merely expresses "boo to murder!" lse. (Memory aid: Emotivism = moral language expresses feelings, like cheering or booing.)
情绪主义（非认知主义）认为道德陈述不表达命题，而是宣泄情感或规定态度。艾耶尔说“谋杀是错的”仅仅表达“谋杀，呸！”，既不真也不假。（记忆法：情绪主义 = 道德语言表达感受，像喝彩或嘘声。）
9. Applied Ethics: Key Issues | 应用伦理学：关键议题
ns many religious arguments against abortion and euthanasia. (Memory aid: Sanctity = sacred, life is a gift not to be destroyed.)
生命神圣原则主张人类生命本身具有价值和神圣性，通常因为生命是上帝所赐。这项原则是许多宗教反对堕胎和安乐死论证的基础。（记忆法：神圣 = 生命是神圣礼物，不可毁灭。）
appeal to quality of life to justify voluntary euthanasia or abortion in certain cases. (Memory aid: Quality = how good life is, not just being alive.)
生命质量进路根据生活的满足感、自主性和能力来考量生命的价值。功利主义和非宗教观点常诉诸生命质量来为某些情况下的自愿安乐死或堕胎辩护。（记忆法：质量 = 生活有多好，而非仅仅活着。）
include just cause, legitimate authority, proportionality and discrimination. (Memory aid: "Just war" = justice in war; divide into ad bellum and in bello.)
正义战争理论规定了何时允许开战（诉诸战争的正义）以及战争应如何进行（战争中的正义）。原则包括正当理由、合法权威、相称性和区别性。（记忆法：“正义战争”= 战争中的正义；分为开战和战中两部分。）
10. Key Philosophical Thinkers and Concepts | 关键哲学家与概念
Plato' est Form, illuminating all others. It influences arguments for a perfect, transcendent God. (Memory aid: Forms = perfect blueprints; the shadow on the cave wall.)
柏拉图的理型论区分了现象世界与永恒不变的理型世界。善的理型是最高的理型，照亮其他一切。这影响了关于完美、超越之上帝的论证。（记忆法：理型 = 完美蓝图；洞穴墙上的影子。）
Aristotle's Four Causes explain why things exist and change: material cause (what it is made of), formal cause (its essence), efficient cause (the agent bringing change), and final cause (its purpose). The final cause is central to his teleological worldview. (Memory aid: Four causes; mnemonic: Matter, Form, Agent, Purpose.)
亚里士多德的四因说解释事物的存在和变化：质料因（由什么构成）、形式因（本质）、动力因（引起变化的动因）和目的因（目的）。目的因是其目的论世界观的核心。（记忆法：四因，即质、形、动、目的。）
Descartes' rationalism and method of doubt sought indubitable knowledge. His famous statement "I think, therefore I am" es the self as a thinking thing, forming the basis for his substance dualism. (Memory aid: "I think" = 'Cogito'; foundation of certainty.)
笛卡尔的理性主义和怀疑方法寻求不可置疑的知识。他的著名陈述“我思故我在”确立了自我是思考之物，为其物质二元论奠定基础。（记忆法：“我思”= Cogito；确定性的基石。）
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