📚 Year 12 Edexcel Law: Key Vocabulary & Terminology Quick-Memory Guide | Year 12 Edexcel 法律：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the language of law is half the battle in your Edexcel AS exam. This guide cuts through the jargon and gives you clear, accurate definitions for the terms that appear in every past paper, from the English legal system to criminal and tort law. Use the paired English-Chinese explanations, tables, and memory triggers to build a solid foundation and speed up your revision.
掌握法律语言是Edexcel AS考试成功的一半。本指南为你梳理高频术语，提供清晰准确的定义，涵盖英国法律体系、刑法和侵权法。通过英中对照解释、表格和记忆触发点，帮助你建立扎实的基础，高效备考。
1. Sources of Law | 法律渊源
In the English legal system, law comes from two main formal sources: Parliament (statute law) and the courts (common law and equity). Statute law, or legislation, is the highest form of law because Parliament is sovereign. However, judges also make law through the doctrine of precedent, and where statute law is silent, common law fills the gap. Equity developed to provide fairer remedies when the common law was too rigid.
在英格兰法律体系中，法律主要来自两种正式渊源：议会（成文法）和法院（普通法与衡平法）。成文法，即立法，是最高形式的法律，因为议会拥有主权。但法官也通过先例原则造法，当成文法无规定时，普通法加以填补。衡平法的发展则是为了在普通法过于僵化时提供更公正的救济。
| English Term | 中文术语 | Simple Definition |
|---|---|---|
| Statute Law | 成文法 | Law made by Parliament (Acts of Parliament). |
| Common Law | 普通法 | Law developed by judges through decisions in courts. |
| Equity | 衡平法 | A system of fairness that supplements the common law. |
| Parliamentary Sovereignty | 议会主权 | Parliament is the supreme law-making body; no one can override its legislation. |
2. Statutory Interpretation | 法律解释
When judges apply an Act of Parliament, they must interpret the words. Three traditional rules guide them: the literal rule gives words their plain, ordinary meaning; the golden rule allows a judge to depart from the literal meaning to avoid an absurd result; the mischief rule looks at the gap in the old law that the Act was designed to remedy. Purposive approach goes further by interpreting the law in line with its overall purpose, especially when EU law or human rights are involved.
法官在适用议会立法时，必须解释词语。传统上有三个规则：字面规则赋予词语其普通的平义；黄金规则允许法官为避免荒谬结果而偏离字面含义；填补漏洞规则考察旧法中的缺陷，视该法为弥补该缺陷而制定。目的解释法则更进一步，根据法律的整体目的进行解释，尤其在涉及欧盟法或人权时使用。
| Rule | 中文 | Key Case/Example |
|---|---|---|
| Literal Rule | 字面规则 | Whitely v Chappell (1868) – dead person not entitled to vote. |
| Golden Rule | 黄金规则 | R v Allen (1872) – 'marry' interpreted to mean 'go through a marriage ceremony'. |
| Mischief Rule | 填补漏洞规则 | Smith v Hughes (1960) – soliciting from a balcony was still in a 'street'. |
3. Judicial Precedent | 司法先例
The doctrine of precedent (stare decisis) means that decisions of higher courts bind lower courts in future cases with similar facts. The key part of a judgment is the ratio decidendi – the legal reason for the decision, which is binding. Any other comments are obiter dicta (things said by the way) and are only persuasive. The hierarchy of courts ensures consistency: Supreme Court decisions bind all lower courts. Distinguishing, overruling and reversing allow flexibility.
先例原则（遵从先例）意味着上级法院的判决对未来类似案件的下级法院具有约束力。判决的关键部分是判决理由（ratio decidendi）——即判决的法律依据，有约束力。其他意见为附带意见（obiter dicta），仅具说服力。法院等级体系确保一致性：最高法院的判决约束所有下级法院。区别、推翻和撤销允许灵活性。
Ratio decidendi (binding) vs Obiter dicta (persuasive) | 判决理由（约束性） vs 附带意见（说服性）
- Original precedent: A new legal rule created because no previous precedent exists. 原初先例：因以前没有先例而创造的新法律规则。
- Distinguishing: A judge finds a material difference in the facts of the present case and avoids following a binding precedent. 区别：法官发现当前案件事实存在实质差异，从而避免遵循一个有约束力的先例。
- Overruling: A higher court decides a previous decision by a lower court was wrong. 推翻：上级法院裁定下级法院以往的判决是错误的。
4. Criminal Law: Actus Reus | 刑法：犯罪行为
To secure a conviction, the prosecution must usually prove both the actus reus (guilty act) and the mens rea (guilty mind). Actus reus can be an act, an omission (failure to act when there is a duty to do so), or a state of affairs. A key concept is causation: the prosecution must show the defendant's act was both a factual cause (the 'but for' test) and the legal cause (more than a minimal cause, operating substantially) of the prohibited consequence.
要定罪，控方通常必须同时证明犯罪行为（actus reus）和犯罪意图（mens rea）。犯罪行为可以是作为、不作为（在有义务作为时未行动）或事态。关键概念是因果关系：控方须证明被告的行为既是事实原因（“若非”检验），又是法律原因（超乎微小原因，实质性地起作用）导致了禁止后果。
| Latin Term | 中文 | Meaning / Test |
|---|---|---|
| Actus reus | 犯罪行为 | The external element of the crime. |
| Factual causation | 事实因果关系 | 'But for' D's act, would the result have occurred? (White) |
| Legal causation | 法律因果关系 | D's act must be the 'operating and substantial cause' (Smith). |
| Novus actus interveniens | 新的介入行为 | An intervening act that breaks the chain of causation. |
5. Criminal Law: Mens Rea | 刑法：犯罪意图
Mens rea refers to the mental element of the offence. The highest level is intention: direct intent (aiming to bring about a consequence) or oblique intent (the consequence was virtually certain and the defendant appreciated that). Recklessness is a lower level: knowingly taking an unjustified risk (R v G test: D was aware of the risk and it was unreasonable to take it). Transferred malice applies when D intends to harm one person but accidentally harms another – the mens rea is transferred.
犯罪意图指犯罪的心理要素。最高级别是故意：直接故意（旨在实现某一后果）或间接故意（后果几乎必然发生且被告认识到这一点）。轻率是较低级别：明知不当而冒险（R v G 检验：被告意识到风险且冒此风险是不合理的）。转嫁恶意适用于被告意图伤害某人但意外伤害了另一人——犯罪意图随之转移。
Mens Rea Levels: Intention > Recklessness > Negligence (in some offences) | 意图等级：故意 > 轻率 > 疏忽（部分犯罪）
- Direct intent: Direct intention – 'aim, purpose'. 直接故意：目的、目标。
- Oblique intent: Indirect intention – Woollin test: (1) consequence virtually certain, (2) D foresaw it. 间接故意：后果几乎必然且被告预见。
- Recklessness: Cunningham (subjective) – D foresaw the risk and went on anyway. 轻率：主观预见风险仍为之。
6. Strict Liability | 严格责任
Strict liability offences do not require the prosecution to prove mens rea for at least one element of the actus reus. These offences are usually regulatory in nature, created by statute to protect the public, environment, or food safety. Even if the defendant took all reasonable care, they can still be guilty. The key case Callow v Tillstone (1900) shows that a butcher was convicted of selling unfit meat even though a vet approved it – no fault needed.
严格责任犯罪不要求控方证明犯罪行为的至少一个要素具有犯罪意图。此类犯罪通常是法规设立的监管性犯罪，旨在保护公众、环境或食品安全。即使被告已采取所有合理注意，仍可能被定罪。关键案例 Callow v Tillstone (1900) 表明，肉贩出售不合格肉品，即使经兽医许可仍被定罪——不需要过错。
常用判断标准：The presumption of mens rea applies, but can be displaced if the statute is concerned with an issue of social concern, the offence is regulatory, or carries a small penalty. Gammon (Hong Kong) Ltd v Attorney-General (1985) 规定了相关因素。中文：犯罪意图推定适用，但如果涉及社会关注的议题、属于监管性犯罪或只处轻微刑罚，可被推翻。
7. Tort Law: Negligence – Duty of Care | 侵权法：过失 – 注意义务
Negligence is the largest tort area. To succeed, a claimant must prove: (1) duty of care, (2) breach of that duty, (3) causation, and (4) damage not too remote. The modern duty of care test from Caparo Industries v Dickman (1990) has three stages: (a) was the harm reasonably foreseeable? (b) was there sufficient proximity between claimant and defendant? (c) is it fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty? There are also established duty situations, like doctor-patient or road users.
过失是最主要的侵权领域。索赔成功，原告须证明：（1）注意义务，（2）违反该义务，（3）因果关系，（4）损害非过于遥远。现代注意义务检验来自 Caparo Industries v Dickman (1990)，分三阶段：（a）损害是否合理可预见？（b）原告与被告之间是否有足够的邻近性？（c）施加义务是否公平、公正且合理？也已有既定注意义务情形，如医患关系或道路使用者。
Caparo Three-Stage Test | Caparo 三阶段检验
Foreseeability → Proximity → Fair, just and reasonable | 可预见性 → 邻近性 → 公平、公正且合理
8. Tort Law: Breach of Duty and Causation | 侵权法：违反义务与因果关系
Breach occurs when the defendant falls below the standard of care expected. The standard is that of the 'reasonable man' (Blyth v Birmingham Waterworks). Factors courts consider: likelihood of harm, seriousness of harm, cost of taking precautions, and social usefulness of the defendant's activity. Causation uses the 'but for' test (factual causation) and the legal test of remoteness: the damage must not be too remote a consequence (The Wagon Mound – reasonable foreseeability of the type of damage).
当被告行为未达到应有的注意标准，即构成违反义务。标准是“理性人”标准（Blyth v Birmingham Waterworks）。法院考虑因素：损害可能性、损害严重性、防范措施成本以及被告活动的社会效益。因果关系采用“若非”检验（事实因果关系）和遥远性法律检验：损害不能是过于遥远的后果（The Wagon Mound——损害类型须合理可预见）。
- 'Reasonable man' test: Objective standard, not the defendant's personal view. 理性人检验：客观标准，非被告个人看法。
- Professional standard: Bolam test – a professional is not negligent if they acted in accordance with a responsible body of opinion. 专业标准：Bolam 检验——遵循负责的专业群体意见，则不构成过失。
- Remoteness: Wagon Mound – kind of damage must be reasonably foreseeable; the extent need not be. 遥远性：损害种类须可预见，程度不必。
9. Defences in Tort | 侵权抗辩
A defendant can escape liability or reduce damages using defences. Contributory negligence (Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945) reduces the claimant's damages by a percentage reflecting their share of fault. Volenti non fit injuria (consent) is a complete defence: the claimant freely accepted the risk of harm. Illegality (ex turpi causa) bars claims where the claimant was involved in an illegal act connected to the harm. These must be pleaded and proved.
被告可通过抗辩来免除责任或减少赔偿。 共同过失（1945年《法律改革（共同过失）法》）按原告自身过错比例减少其损害赔偿。 同意（volenti non fit injuria）是完全抗辩：原告自愿接受了损害风险。 违法性（ex turpi causa）则禁止与非法行为相关的索赔。这些均须主张并证明。
| Defence | 中文 | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| Contributory negligence | 共同过失 | Damages reduced by court (e.g. 20%). |
| Volenti non fit injuria | 自愿同意 | Complete defence – no damages. |
| Illegality | 违法性 | Complete defence. |
10. Legal Vocabulary Booster | 法律词汇加强
Here are additional high-frequency terms you will encounter across Paper 1 and Paper 2. Mixing them into your essays shows precision and exam confidence.
以下是在试卷一和试卷二中常见的高频术语。在论文中使用它们展现答题的准确性和自信。
- Obiter dictum (plural: dicta): a judge's statement not essential to the decision, persuasive. 附带意见：法官的非必要陈述，具说服力。
- Res judicata: a matter that has been adjudicated by a competent court and may not be pursued further by the same parties. 既判力：已由合资格法院裁决之事项，相同当事人不得再诉。
- Public policy: the principle that harm to the public interest can be a reason to deny a claim. 公共政策：以损害公共利益为由拒绝索赔的原则。
- Ultra vires: beyond one's legal power or authority. 越权：超越法定权力或授权。
- Damages (compensatory, exemplary): monetary compensation. 损害赔偿（补偿性、惩戒性）：金钱补偿。
- Injunction: a court order requiring a party to do or refrain from doing a specific act. 禁制令：法院命令某人做或不得做特定行为。
- Thin skull rule: you must take your victim as you find them – applies to both criminal and tort law. 薄颅骨规则：必须接受受害人本来的身体状况——适用于刑法和侵权法。
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