📚 Year 11 CIE Psychology: A Quick Guide to Key Vocabulary and Terminology | CIE 11年级心理学：关键词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the technical vocabulary of psychology is the first step to excelling in your CIE examinations. This guide provides clear definitions, handy memory aids and cross‑references to help you internalise essential terms from research methods, cognition, social psychology, development, biological psychology and data analysis. Use it alongside your class notes to speed up revision and boost your confidence.
掌握心理学的专业术语是在CIE考试中取得高分的第一步。这份指南提供了清晰的定义、实用的记忆技巧和跨章节的对照，帮助你内化研究方法、认知心理学、社会心理学、发展心理学、生物心理学和数据分析中的核心词汇。配合课堂笔记一起使用，可以加速复习进度，提升你的信心。
1. Research Methods Core Vocabulary | 研究方法核心词汇
Experiment: A controlled procedure in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable, while holding other variables constant. (Memory tip: 'The experiment puts the IV to the test.')
实验：一种受控的程序，研究者操纵自变量以测量其对因变量的影响，同时保持其他变量不变。（记忆提示：“实验就是对自变量的考验”。）
rediction about the relationship between two or more variables. It can be directional (one‑tailed) or non‑directional (two‑tailed). (Shortcut: 'Hypothesis = a predicted outcome.')
假设：关于两个或多个变量之间关系的精确、可检验的预测。它可以是有方向的（单尾）或无方向的（双尾）。（速记：“假设就是一个预测的结果”。）
e no significant difference or relationship; any observed effect is due to chance. (Think: 'Null = zero effect.')
零假设：声明将不会有显著差异或关系；任何观察到的效应都归因于偶然因素。（联想：“零就是没有效应”。）
efining it in terms of the exact procedures used to manipulate or measure it. For example, 'aggression' could be operationalised as the number of times a child hits a doll. (Mnemonic: 'Operationalise = turn a concept into a number.')
操作化：通过定义操纵或测量变量的具体程序，使变量变得可测量。例如，“攻击性”可以被操作化为儿童击打玩具娃娃的次数。（助记：“操作化就是将概念转化为数字”。）
2. Variables and Operationalisation | 变量与操作化
Independent variable (IV): The factor that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates. (Quick recall: 'I change the IV'.')
自变量 (IV)：研究者有意改变或操纵的因素。（快速回想：“我改变的变量就是IV”。）
Dependent variable (DV): The factor that is measured; it depends on the IV. (Saying: 'DV depends on IV.')
因变量 (DV)：被测量的因素；它取决于自变量。（说法：“DV依赖于IV”。）
Controlled variable: A variable that is kept constant to prevent it from affecting the DV. (Label: 'The boring variable we don't let change.')
控制变量：保持恒定的变量，以防止它影响因变量。（标签：“我们不允许它改变的单调变量”。）
ariable: Any variable other than the IV that could affect the DV if not controlled. (Link: 'Extraneous = extra, unwanted.')
外变量：除自变量之外任何可能影响因变量的变量，如果不加以控制。（连接：“外变量就是额外的、不受欢迎的”。）
Confounding variable: An extraneous variable that does vary systematically with the IV, making it impossible to determine which factor caused the change. (Distinction: 'Confounding confuses the cause.')
混淆变量：一种与自变量系统性地共同变化的外变量，使得无法确定究竟是哪个因素引起了变化。（区分：“混淆变量搅乱了因果”。）
3. Experimental Designs | 实验设计
Independent groups design: Different participants are used in each condition of the experiment. (Memory tag: 'Independent people, independent groups.')
独立组设计：每个实验条件下使用不同的参与者。（记忆标记：“独立的人，独立的组”。）
Repeated measures design: The same participants take part in all conditions. (Clue: 'Repeated means they do it again.')
重复测量设计：同一组参与者参与所有条件。（提示：“重复意味着他们再测一次”。）
Matched pairs design: Participants are paired based on key characteristics, then one member of each pair is allocated to each condition. (Image: 'Think of twins split between groups.')
配对匹配设计：根据关键特征将参与者两两配对，然后将每对中的一人分配到各个条件。（想象：“想象双胞胎被分到不同组”。）
Random allocation: Assigning participants to conditions entirely by chance, which helps control for participant variables. (Trick: 'Names out of a hat.')
随机分配：完全通过偶然方式将参与者分配到各条件，有助于控制参与者变量。（窍门：“就像从帽子里抽名字”。）
| Design | 设计 | Key strength | 主要优点 | Key limitation | 主要局限 |
|---|---|---|
| Independent groups | 独立组 | No order effects | 无顺序效应 | Participant variables may differ | 参与者变量可能不同 |
| Repeated measures | 重复测量 | Controls participant variables | 控制参与者变量 | Order effects (practice, fatigue) | 顺序效应（练习效应、疲劳效应） |
| Matched pairs | 配对匹配 | Reduces participant variables; no order effects | 减少参与者变量；无顺序效应 | Difficult to match perfectly; time‑consuming | 难以完美匹配；耗时 |
4. Reliability and Validity | 信度与效度
Reliability: The consistency of a measure – if the study were repeated under the same conditions, would it yield similar results? (Simple test: 'Reliable = repeatable.')
信度：测量的一致性——如果在相同条件下重复研究，是否会得到类似的结果？（简单检验：“信度即可重复性”。）
Internal reliability: Consistency within the same test, e.g. whether all items on a questionnaire measure the same construct (split‑half reliability). (Analogy: 'Internal reliability is like all bathroom scales in one house showing the same weight.')
内部信度：同一测试内部的一致性，例如问卷中所有题目是否测量同一构念（分半信度）。（类比：“内部信度就像同一栋房子里所有浴室体重秤读数一致”。）
External reliability: Consistency over time (test–retest reliability). (Memory: 'External = across time.')
外部信度：跨时间的一致性（重测信度）。（记忆：“外部即跨越时间”。）
Validity: Whether the study actually measures what it claims to measure. (Keyword: 'Valid = true.')
效度：研究是否实际测量了其声称要测量的内容。（关键词：“效度即真实”。）
Internal validity: The degree to which the observed effect is genuinely caused by the IV and not by confounding variables. (Check: 'Inside the experiment, is the cause pure?')
内部效度：观察到的效应在多大程度上确实是由自变量引起，而非由混淆变量导致的程度。（检查：“在实验内部，因果纯粹吗？”）
External validity: The extent to which findings can be generalised to other settings (ecological validity), populations (population validity) and times. (Question: 'Can we take the result outside?')
外部效度：研究结果可以在多大程度上推广到其他情境（生态效度）、其他人群（总体效度）和其他时间。（问题：“结果可以带出去吗？”）
5. Sampling Methods | 抽样方法
Random sampling: Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. (Visual: 'Names in a drum.')
随机抽样：目标总体中的每一个体都有均等的机会被选中。（视觉画面：“鼓中抽名”。）
Opportunity sampling: Selecting participants who are conveniently available, e.g. people walking past the library. (Warning: 'Quick but not always representative.')
机会抽样：选择最容易接触到的参与者，例如经过图书馆的行人。（提醒：“快捷但不一定具有代表性”。）
Stratified sampling: The researcher identifies different subgroups (strata) within the population and selects a proportion of participants from each. (Insight: 'Strata gets a fair share.')
分层抽样：研究者识别总体中的不同亚群（层），然后从每一层中按比例选出参与者。（洞见：“让每一层都获得公平份额”。）
Systematic sampling: Selecting every nth person from a list of the target population. (Rhythm: 'Take every 5th name.')
系统抽样：从目标总体名单中每隔一定数量选取一人。（节奏：“每第5个名字选一个”。）
Volunteer (self‑selected) sampling: Participants actively offer to take part, e.g. by responding to an advert. (Bias factor: 'Only keen people step forward.')
自愿（自选）抽样：参与者主动报名参加，如回应广告。（偏差因素：“只有热心人才会站出来”。）
6. Ethical Considerations | 伦理考量
Informed consent: Participants must be fully aware of the aims, procedures and potential risks before agreeing to take part. For under‑16s, parental consent is required. (Key phrase: 'They must know what they're getting into.')
知情同意：参与者在同意参加之前必须充分了解研究的目的、程序和潜在风险。16岁以下需获得父母同意。（关键句：“他们必须知道自己要面对什么”。）
Deception: Deliberately misleading participants about the true nature of the study. This is only acceptable if no alternative is available and it does not cause severe distress. (Balance: 'Deception must be justified and followed by debrief.')
欺骗：故意向参与者隐瞒研究的真实性质。只有在别无选择且不会造成严重痛苦时才能接受。（平衡：“欺骗必须合理，并之后进行事后解释”。）
Right to withdraw: Participants must be allowed to leave the study at any time without penalty. (Simple rule: 'No forced participation.')
退出的权利：必须允许参与者在任何时候退出研究且不受惩罚。（简单规则：“不得强迫参与”。）
Protection from harm: Participants must not be exposed to greater physical or psychological risk than they would encounter in everyday life. (Core principle: 'Safety above data.')
免受伤害：参与者所面临的身体或心理风险不得高于日常生活中可能遇到的程度。（核心原则：“安全高于数据”。）
Confidentiality: Personal data must be anonymised and kept secure; individuals should not be identifiable in the research report. (Watchword: 'Names are locked away.')
保密性：个人数据必须匿名处理且妥善保存；研究报告中不应能辨认出个人身份。（守则：“名字被锁起来”。）
Debrief: After the study, participants are told the full purpose and given the chance to ask questions or withdraw their data. (Final step: 'The honest conversation.')
事后解释：研究结束后，告知参与者全部研究目的，并给他们提问或撤回数据的机会。（最后一步：“坦诚的对话”。）
7. Cognitive Psychology: Memory | 认知心理学：记忆
Multi‑Store Model (MSM) – Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968): Memory consists of three stores: sensory register, short‑term memory (STM) and long‑term memory (LTM). Information moves via attention and rehearsal. (Chant: 'Sensory, short, long – rehearse to keep strong.')
多存贮模型 (MSM) – Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)：记忆由三个存贮库组成：感觉登记器、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息通过注意和复述转移。（口诀：“感觉、短时、长时——复述让它牢”。）
Encoding: The form in which information is stored – acoustic in STM, semantic in LTM. (Key: 'STM = sounds, LTM = meaning.')
编码：信息储存的形式——短时记忆中为声学编码，长时记忆中为语义编码。（关键：“STM=声音，LTM=意义”。）
Capacity and duration: STM holds 7±2 items for about 18–30 seconds; LTM is potentially unlimited in capacity and duration. (Recall: 'Seven is the magic number for STM.')
容量与持续时间：短时记忆可容纳7±2个组块，持续约18–30秒；长时记忆的容量和持续时间几乎是无限的。（记忆点：“7是STM的神奇数字”。）
Working Memory Model (WMM) – Baddeley & Hitch (1974): A more detailed model of STM, with a central executive controlling two slave systems: the phonological loop (verbal/acoustic information) and the visuo‑spatial sketchpad (visual/spatial data). Later, the episodic buffer was added. (Image: 'The boss (central executive) tells the loop and sketchpad what to do.')
工作记忆模型 (WMM) – Baddeley & Hitch (1974)：一个更详细的短时记忆模型，中央执行器控制着两个从属系统：语音回路（言语/听觉信息）和视空画板（视觉/空间信息）。后来又加入了情节缓冲区。（形象：“老板（中央执行器）指挥语音回路和画板工作”。）
8. Cognitive Psychology: Forgetting and Thinking | 认知心理学：遗忘与思维
roactive interference: Old information disrupts the recall of new information. (Direction: 'Pro = forward, old messes up new.')
前摄干扰：旧信息干扰新信息的回忆。（方向：“前摄—旧的搞乱新的”。）
roactive interference: New information disrupts the recall of old information. (Direction: 'Retro = backward, new overwrites old.')
倒摄干扰：新信息干扰旧信息的回忆。（方向：“倒摄—新的覆盖旧的”。）
Retrieval failure: Forgetting occurs because suitable retrieval cues are absent. Context‑dependent and state‑dependent cues are classic examples. (Analogy: 'Like searching a wardrobe without a torch – the clothes are there, you just can't see them.')
提取失败：由于缺乏适当的提取线索而发生的遗忘。情境依赖和状态依赖线索是典型例子。（类比：“就像在黑暗的衣柜里找衣服——衣服都在，只是看不清”。）
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts used in problem solving and decision making, e.g. representativeness heuristic (judging likelihood by how much something resembles a typical case) and availability heuristic (judging by how easily examples come to mind). (Warning: 'Quick but sometimes biased.')
启发式：在问题解决和决策中使用的心理捷径，例如代表性启发式（根据事物与典型案例的相似程度来判断概率）和可得性启发式（根据例子想到的容易程度来判断）。（提醒：“快速但有时存在偏差”。）
9. Social Psychology: Social Influence | 社会心理学：社会影响
fluence (desire to be liked) or informational social influence (desire to be right). (Asch's line study is the classic demonstration. Tag: 'Conformity = going along with the crowd.')
从众：为了与某个社会群体保持一致而改变信念或行为，通常受规范社会影响（渴望被喜欢）或信息社会影响（渴望正确）驱动。（阿希的线条研究是经典示范。标签：“从众就是跟随大众”。）
Obedience: Following direct orders from an authority figure. Milgram' bedience could occur even when commands conflicted with personal conscience. (Key insight: 'Obedience = responding to authority, not group pressure.')
服从：遵从权威人物的直接命令。米尔格拉姆（1963）的电击实验表明，即使命令与个人良知冲突，仍可能出现很高的服从水平。（关键洞见：“服从是对权威的反应，而非来自群体压力”。）
mergency when others are present. Diffusion of responsibility is a key explanation. (Latané and Darley's smoke‑filled room study illustrates this. Reminder: 'More people = less personal responsibility.')
旁观者效应（或称旁观者冷漠）：当其他人在场时，个体在紧急情况下提供帮助的可能性降低的现象。责任扩散是重要解释。（拉坦内和达利充满烟雾的房间研究说明了这一点。提醒：“人越多，个人责任感越低”。）
Deindividuation: A state of lowered self‑awareness and reduced personal identity, often occurring in crowds or when anonymity is guaranteed, which can lead to disinhibited behaviour. (Phrase: 'Lost in the crowd.')
去个性化：自我意识降低、个人身份感减弱的状态，常发生在人群中或匿名得以保障时，可能导致去抑制行为。（说法：“淹没在人群中”。）
10. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋
Attachment: A deep, enduring emotional bond between an infant and caregiver, characterised by proximity seeking, separation distress and a sense of security. (Bowlby's foundational idea: 'Attachment is a survival mechanism.')
依恋：婴儿与照料者之间深刻而持久的情感纽带，其特征为寻求亲近、分离痛苦和安全感。（鲍尔比的基础理念：“依恋是一种生存机制”。）
Strange Situation (Ainsworth, 1978): A controlled observational procedure used to classify attachment types – secure, insecure‑avoidant and insecure‑resistant – based on reunion behaviour. (Scene: 'A playroom, a stranger, two reunions.')
陌生人情境（Ainsworth, 1978）：一种受控的观察程序，用于根据重聚行为将依恋类型分为安全型、不安全–回避型和不安全–反抗型。（场景：“一间游戏室，一个陌生人，两次重聚”。）
t is easily comforted upon return and uses the caregiver as a safe base. (Golden standard: 'Secure base = confident exploration.')
安全型依恋：婴儿在照料者离开时表现出痛苦，但在其返回时容易被安抚，并将照料者作为安全基地。（黄金标准：“安全基地 = 自信探索”。）
Maternal deprivation (Bowlby's 44 thieves study): Prolonged separation from the primary caregiver in the critical period (0–2.5 years) was argued to cause long‑term emotional damage, including affectionless psychopathy. (Footnote: 'Bowlby's hypothesis, though later refined.')
母爱剥夺（Bowlby的44个少年犯研究）：在关键期（0–2.5岁）与主要照料者长期分离可能会导致长期情感损害，包括无情型精神病态。（注脚：“尽管后来有所修正，这是鲍尔比的假说”。）
11. Biological Psychology and Neuroscience | 生物心理学与神经科学
Amygdala: An almond‑shaped structure in the brain linked to emotional processing, especially fear and aggression. (Memory shape: 'Amygdala sounds like "almond".')
杏仁核：大脑中一个杏仁状的结构，与情绪加工，特别是恐惧和攻击性有关。（形态助记：“杏仁核的英文amygdala读起来像almond杏仁”。）
Prefrontal cortex: The front part of the frontal lobes, involved in decision making, impulse control and reasoning; its maturation continues into early adulthood. (Role: 'The brain's CEO.')
前额叶皮层：额叶的前部，参与决策、冲动控制和推理；它的成熟持续到成年早期。（角色：“大脑的首席执行官”。）
Neurotransmitter: A chemical messenger that transmits signals across a synapse from one neuron to another. Examples include serotonin (mood), dopamine (pleasure, motivation) and acetylcholine (learning). (Pictogram: 'Tiny keys opening receptor locks.')
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