📚 Year 11 CIE Science: Core Knowledge Overview | Year 11 CIE 科学：核心知识点梳理
Mastering the core concepts in Year 11 CIE Science requires a solid grasp of physics, chemistry, and biology fundamentals. This article distils the essential topics, linking them to the IGCSE Coordinated Science syllabus, and provides a clear framework for revision.
掌握 Year 11 CIE 科学的核心概念需要扎实理解物理、化学和生物学基础。本文提炼了与 IGCSE 综合科学教学大纲紧密相关的关键主题，为复习提供一个清晰的框架。
1. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
calculated as speed = distance ÷ time, while velocity specifies both speed and direction.
速率是距离变化的快慢，计算公式为：速率 = 距离 ÷ 时间；而速度既包含大小也包含方向。
f change of velocity: a = Δv ÷ t, where Δv = final velocity − initial velocity. A velocity– ph has gradient equal to acceleration and area under the line equal to distance travelled.
加速度是速度变化的快慢：a = Δv ÷ t，Δv = 末速度 − 初速度。速度-时间图的斜率等于加速度，线下面积等于经过的距离。
ma). When resultant force is zero, an object maintains constant velocity or stays at rest (Newton’s first law).
牛顿第二定律指出，合力 = 质量 × 加速度（F = ma）。当合力为零时，物体保持匀速直线运动或静止状态（牛顿第一定律）。
2. Energy, Work and Power | 能量、功与功率
, only transferred or stored. Kinetic energy = ½mv², gravitational potential energy = mgh.
能量既不会凭空产生也不会消失，只能被转移或储存。动能 = ½mv²，重力势能 = mgh。
oves an object: W = Fd. Power is the rate of doing work: P = W ÷ t, measured in watts (W).
功是力使物体移动时传递的能量：W = Fd。功率是做功的快慢：P = W ÷ t，单位是瓦特 (W)。
Efficiency = (useful energy output ÷ total energy input) × 100%. Sankey diagrams show energy transfers and proportion of wasted energy.
效率 = (有用输出能量 ÷ 总输入能量) × 100%。Sankey 图可以展示能量传递和浪费能量的比例。
3. Waves and the Electromagnetic Spectrum | 波与电磁波谱
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Transverse waves (e.g. light, water waves) have oscillations perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer; longitudinal waves (e.g. sound) have oscillations parallel.
波传递能量而不传递物质。横波（如光波、水波）的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直；纵波（如声波）的振动方向与传播方向平行。
uation links speed, frequency and wavelength: v = fλ. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
波速方程将波速、频率和波长联系起来：v = fλ。频率以赫兹 (Hz) 为单位。
ared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays. All travel at 3×10⁸ m/s in a vacuum.
电磁波谱按频率递增顺序为：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线、伽马射线。真空中传播速度均为 3×10⁸ m/s。
4. Electricity and Magnetism | 电与磁
nce R is measured in ohms (Ω). In series circuits, current is the same everywhere; in parallel circuits, voltage is the same across each branch.
欧姆定律指出 V = IR，其中电阻 R 的单位是欧姆 (Ω)。串联电路中电流处处相等；并联电路中各支路两端电压相等。
ergy transferred E = IVt. Fuses and circuit breakers protect circuits from excess current.
电功率 P = IV，能量转移 E = IVt。保险丝和断路器用于防止电路过载。
se this principle to step voltage up or down, with Vₚ/Vₛ = Nₚ/Nₛ for an ideal transformer.
电磁感应：变化的磁场在线圈中产生电压。变压器利用这一原理升压或降压，理想变压器满足 Vₚ/Vₛ = Nₚ/Nₛ。
5. Atomic Structure and Bonding | 原子结构与化学键
ons + neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
原子由质子、中子和电子组成。原子序数 Z = 质子数，质量数 A = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素是质子数相同而中子数不同的同一元素原子。
Electrons are arranged in shells: first shell holds up to 2, second and third up to 8. The electronic configuration determines chemical reactivity.
电子按壳层排列：第一层最多容纳 2 个，第二层和第三层最多容纳 8 个。电子排布决定了化学活泼性。
Ionic bonding forms between metals and non-metals by electron transfer, producing oppositely charged ions. Covalent bonding forms between non-metals by sharing electrons, creating molecules or giant structures.
离子键通过电子转移在金属和非金属之间形成，产生带相反电荷的离子。共价键通过共享电子在非金属之间形成，构成分子或巨型结构。
6. Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry | 化学反应与化学计量
where carbon-12 has a mass of 12. One mole of a substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles.
相对原子质量 (Aᵣ) 和相对分子质量 (Mᵣ) 以碳-12 的质量为 12 作为基准。1 摩尔物质含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个微粒。
t (mol) ÷ volume (dm³). These relationships are essential for calculating yields and titrations.
物质的量 (mol) = 质量 (g) ÷ Mᵣ。浓度 (mol/dm³) = 物质的量 (mol) ÷ 体积 (dm³)。这些关系对产率计算和滴定至关重要。
tio of reactants and products. Percentage yield = (actual yield ÷ theoretical yield) × 100%.
在配平的化学方程式中，系数表示反应物与生成物的摩尔比。百分产率 = (实际产量 ÷ 理论产量) × 100%。
7. Acids, Bases and Salts | 酸、碱与盐
Acids are proton donors; bases are proton acceptors. pH scale ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly alkaline), with 7 neutral.
酸是质子给予体，碱是质子接受体。pH 标度范围是 0（强酸）到 14（强碱），7 为中性。
salt + water. For example, hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water.
中和反应：酸 + 碱 → 盐 + 水。例如，盐酸 + 氢氧化钠 → 氯化钠 + 水。
Salts can be prepared by reacting an acid with a metal, insoluble base, or carbonate. Soluble salts are obtained by evaporation or crystallisation.
盐可通过酸与金属、不溶性碱或碳酸盐反应制取。可溶性盐通过蒸发或结晶获得。
8. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学
Alkanes (e.g. methane CH₄, ethane C₂H₆) are saturated hydrocarbons with single C–C bonds. Alkenes (e.g. ethene C₂H₄) contain a C=C double bond and are unsaturated.
烷烃（如甲烷 CH₄、乙烷 C₂H₆）是含有单 C–C 键的饱和烃。烯烃（如乙烯 C₂H₄）含有 C=C 双键，属于不饱和烃。
Functional groups determine the characteristic reactions: alcohols contain –OH, carboxylic acids contain –COOH. Addition polymerisation turns alkene monomers into long-chain polymers.
官能团决定特征反应：醇类含 –OH，羧酸含 –COOH。加成聚合反应将烯烃单体转变为长链聚合物。
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons separated by fractional distillation. Shorter-chain hydrocarbons have lower boiling points and are more flammable.
原油是烃类混合物，可通过分馏分离。碳链较短的烃沸点较低且更易燃。
9. Cell Biology and Transport | 细胞生物学与运输
Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and a large central vacuole, while animal cells lack these. Both contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane and mitochondria.
植物细胞有细胞壁、叶绿体和一个大中央液泡，而动物细胞没有。两者都有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜和线粒体。
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from high to low concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动。渗透是水通过半透膜的扩散。
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient using energy from respiration. Protein carriers in the cell membrane are required.
主动运输利用呼吸作用提供的能量逆浓度梯度移动物质，需要细胞膜上的载体蛋白参与。
10. Enzymes and Biological Molecules | 酶与生物分子
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy. Each enzyme has an active site with a specific shape complementary to its substrate.
酶是生物催化剂，通过降低活化能来加快反应速率。每种酶都有一个活性位点，其形状与底物互补。
Temperature and pH affect enzyme activity: extremes cause denaturation, where the active site loses its shape permanently. Optimum conditions vary by enzyme.
温度和 pH 影响酶活性：极端条件会导致变性，活性位点永久失去其形状。不同的酶最适条件各异。
Main biological molecules are carbohydrates (starch, glucose), lipids (fats and oils) and proteins (made of amino acids). Starch and proteins are tested with iodine and biuret reagent respectively.
主要生物分子有碳水化合物（淀粉、葡萄糖）、脂类（脂肪和油）和蛋白质（由氨基酸组成）。可分别用碘液和双缩脲试剂检验淀粉与蛋白质。
11. Photosynthesis and Respiration | 光合作用与呼吸作用
and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water, using light energy: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.
光合作用是植物利用光能，将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气的过程：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂。
y). Anaerobic respiration in muscles produces lactic acid; in yeast, it produces ethanol and CO₂.
有氧呼吸在氧气存在下从葡萄糖释放能量：C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O（+ 能量）。肌肉中的无氧呼吸产生乳酸；酵母中则产生乙醇和 CO₂。
Limiting factors for photosynthesis include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Graphs show how these factors affect the rate.
光合作用的限制因素包括光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。相关图表能体现这些因素如何影响反应速率。
12. Ecology and Evolution | 生态与进化
Food chains show the transfer of energy from producers to consumers. Energy is lost at each trophic level through respiration, movement and undigested material.
食物链显示能量从生产者到消费者的传递。能量在每一营养级因呼吸、运动及未消化物质而损失。
The carbon cycle describes how carbon moves between atmosphere, organisms and fossil fuels through processes like photosynthesis, respiration and combustion.
碳循环描述了碳通过光合作用、呼吸和燃烧等过程，在大气、生物和化石燃料之间的移动。
Natural selection occurs when individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on alleles, leading to gradual evolution within a population.
自然选择发生时，拥有有利性状的个体更可能存活、繁殖并传递其等位基因，从而在种群内引发逐渐进化。
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