📚 Core Topics Summary for Year 11 CAIE Physics | CAIE 物理核心知识点梳理
This guide covers the most important concepts in the Year 11 CAIE Physics syllabus. It is designed to help you revise efficiently by pairing each English explanation with a matching Chinese translation, ensuring you master both the terminology and the key ideas. Use this as a checklist for your final revision.
本指南涵盖 Year 11 CAIE 物理课程中最重要的概念。每个英文解释都配有对应的中文翻译，旨在帮助您高效复习，确保您既掌握术语又理解核心思想。可将其用作最终复习的检查清单。
1. Kinematics and Equations of Motion | 运动学与运动方程
Kinematics describes motion without considering its causes. Speed is the rate of change of distance, while velocity includes direction. Acceleration measures how quickly velocity changes.
运动学描述运动而不考虑其原因。速率是距离变化的快慢，而速度包括了方向。加速度衡量速度变化的快慢。
For constant acceleration, we use the SUVAT equations. The four core equations link displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a) and time (t). You must learn to select the correct equation based on the given quantities.
对于匀加速运动，我们使用 SUVAT 方程。四个核心方程将位移 (s)、初速度 (u)、末速度 (v)、加速度 (a) 和时间 (t) 联系起来。您必须学会根据已知量选择正确的方程。
v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at²
v² = u² + 2as
s = ½ (u + v) t
On a velocity–time graph, the gradient gives acceleration, and the area under the graph gives displacement. Free-fall acceleration near Earth's surface is approximately 9.8 m s⁻².
在速度–时间图上，斜率表示加速度，图线下的面积表示位移。地球表面附近的自由落体加速度约为 9.8 m s⁻² 。
2. Forces and Newton's Laws | 力与牛顿定律
A force can change an object's shape, speed or direction. Forces are vector quantities measured in newtons (N). Newton's first law states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a resultant force.
力可以改变物体的形状、速率或方向。力是矢量，单位为牛 (N)。牛顿第一定律指出，除非受到合外力作用，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动状态。
Newton's second law: resultant force = mass × acceleration, or F = ma. This explains why a greater force produces a larger acceleration, and why a more massive object accelerates less for the same force.
牛顿第二定律：合外力 = 质量 × 加速度，即 F = ma。这解释了为什么更大的力产生更大的加速度，以及为什么在相同力作用下质量更大的物体加速度较小。
Newton's third law: when object A exerts a force on object B, B exerts an equal and opposite force on A. These action–reaction pairs act on different objects and never cancel.
牛顿第三定律：当物体 A 对物体 B 施加力时，B 对 A 施加等大反向的力。这对作用力与反作用力作用在不同物体上，永远无法相互抵消。
Friction, air resistance and tension are common contact forces. Weight is a non-contact force given by W = mg, where g is gravitational field strength.
摩擦力、空气阻力和张力是常见的接触力。重力是非接触力，由 W = mg 给出，其中 g 是重力场强度。
3. Energy, Work and Power | 能量、功和功率
Energy is the ability to do work and is measured in joules (J). Work done is energy transferred when a force moves an object: W = Fd (when force and displacement are parallel).
能量是做功的能力，单位是焦耳 (J)。功是力使物体移动时转移的能量：W = Fd（当力与位移平行时）。
Kinetic energy is associated with motion: Eₖ = ½ mv². Gravitational potential energy depends on height: Eₚ = mgh. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or stored.
动能与运动有关：Eₖ = ½ mv²。重力势能取决于高度：Eₚ = mgh。能量守恒定律指出，能量不能被创造或消灭，只能被转移或储存。
Power is the rate of energy transfer or work done: P = E/t or P = W/t, measured in watts (W). Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy output to total energy input, often expressed as a percentage.
功率是能量转移或做功的速率：P = E/t 或 P = W/t，单位为瓦 (W)。效率是有用能量输出与总能量输入的比值，通常用百分比表示。
Energy resources include fossil fuels, nuclear, solar, wind, hydroelectric and geothermal. Renewable sources are sustainable but may have lower power density or reliability.
能源包括化石燃料、核能、太阳能、风能、水电和地热。可再生能源具有可持续性，但可能功率密度较低或可靠性较差。
4. Pressure and Density | 压强和密度
Density is mass per unit volume: ρ = m / V, with typical units kg m⁻³. The density of water is about 1000 kg m⁻³. Objects float if their average density is less than the fluid's density.
密度是单位体积的质量：ρ = m / V，常用单位为 kg m⁻³。水的密度约为 1000 kg m⁻³。当物体的平均密度小于流体密度时，物体会漂浮。
Pressure is force per unit area: p = F / A, measured in pascals (Pa). Pressure in a fluid increases with depth: p = hρg, where h is the depth of the liquid column.
压强是单位面积上的力：p = F / A，单位为帕斯卡 (Pa)。流体中的压强随深度增加：p = hρg，其中 h 是液柱深度。
Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. A barometer and manometer use liquid columns to measure pressure. Hydraulic systems multiply force by using different piston areas, obeying Pascal's principle.
大气压随高度降低。气压计和压力计利用液柱测量压强。液压系统利用不同的活塞面积来放大力，遵循帕斯卡原理。
5. Thermal Physics | 热物理学
to the average kinetic energy of particles. The kelvin scale (K) starts at absolute zero (–273 °C). Conversion: T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.
温度用温度计测量，与粒子的平均动能有关。开尔文温标 (K) 从绝对零度 (–273 °C) 开始。换算：T(K) = θ(°C) + 273。
Heat is energy transferred due to temperature difference. The three methods of heat transfer are conduction (solids), convection (fluids) and radiation (electromagnetic waves, no medium needed).
热量是由于温差而转移的能量。热传递的三种方式是传导（固体）、对流（流体）和辐射（电磁波，无需介质）。
Specific heat capacity (c) is the energy needed to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 K: Q = mcΔθ. Latent heat is energy absorbed or released during a change of state without temperature change: Q = mL.
比热容 (c) 是使 1 kg 物质温度升高 1 K 所需的能量：Q = mcΔθ。潜热是在温度不变的状态变化过程中吸收或释放的能量：Q = mL。
ume and temperature. For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, pV = constant (Boyle's law). Pressure law: p/T = constant at constant volume. Charles's law: V/T = constant at constant pressure.
气体定律将压强、体积和温度联系起来。对于一定质量气体，在恒温下 pV = 常量（玻意耳定律）。压强定律：体积不变时 p/T = 常量。查理定律：压强不变时 V/T = 常量。
6. Properties of Waves | 波的性质
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. In transverse waves, oscillations are perpendicular to wave direction (e.g., light, water waves). In longitudinal waves, oscillations are parallel (e.g., sound).
波传递能量而不传递物质。在横波中，振动方向与波传播方向垂直（如光、水波）。在纵波中，振动方向平行（如声波）。
Key wave terms: amplitude (maximum displacement), wavelength (λ), frequency (f) and period (T). Wave speed v = fλ. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
关键波的术语：振幅（最大位移）、波长 (λ)、频率 (f) 和周期 (T)。波速 v = fλ。频率以赫兹 (Hz) 为单位。
gle of reflection. Refraction involves a change in speed and direction when waves enter a new medium. Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles or through gaps, most noticeable when the gap width is similar to the wavelength.
当波遇到表面反弹时发生反射：入射角 = 反射角。折射涉及波进入新介质时速度和方向的改变。衍射是波遇到障碍物或通过缝隙时的扩展现象，当缝隙宽度与波长相近时最为明显。
All waves exhibit these behaviours. Ripple tanks and laser demonstrations are common experimental set-ups.
所有波都表现出这些行为。水波槽和激光演示是常见的实验装置。
7. Electromagnetic Spectrum | 电磁频谱
rder of increasing frequency: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
电磁频谱由横波组成，在真空中以光速传播（c ≈ 3.0 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹）。按照频率增大的顺序，依次包括：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线和伽马射线。
All EM waves can be reflected, refracted and can travel through a vacuum. Their uses depend on their energy and penetrating ability. Radio waves are used for communication, microwaves for cooking and satellite transmission, infrared for thermal imaging, visible light for sight, ultraviolet for sterilisation, X-rays for medical imaging, and gamma rays for cancer treatment.
所有电磁波都能发生反射、折射，并能在真空中传播。它们的用途取决于其能量和穿透能力。无线电波用于通信，微波用于烹饪和卫星传输，红外线用于热成像，可见光用于视觉，紫外线用于灭菌，X 射线用于医学成像，伽马射线用于癌症治疗。
Dangers increase with frequency: UV causes sunburn and skin cancer, X-rays and gamma rays are ionising and can damage cells. Radio waves and microwaves can cause heating effects.
危险随频率增加：紫外线导致晒伤和皮肤癌，X 射线和伽马射线具有电离作用，会损伤细胞。无线电波和微波可能产生热效应。
8. Electricity Fundamentals | 电学基础
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge: I = Q / t, measured in amperes (A). In metals, current is carried by free electrons. Conventional current flows from positive to negative.
电流是电荷流动的速率：I = Q / t，单位为安培 (A)。在金属中，电流由自由电子携带。约定电流方向从正极流向负极。
Potential difference (voltage) is the energy transferred per unit charge: V = W / Q. Resistance opposes current and is defined as R = V / I, measured in ohms (Ω). Ohm's law states that for a fixed resistor at constant temperature, V ∝ I.
电势差（电压）是每单位电荷转移的能量：V = W / Q。电阻阻碍电流，定义为 R = V / I，单位为欧姆 (Ω)。欧姆定律指出，对于恒温下的固定电阻，V ∝ I。
Resistance depends on length (proportional), cross-sectional area (inversely proportional), material and temperature. The resistance of a filament lamp increases with temperature, while a thermistor's resistance decreases as temperature rises. A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has lower resistance in bright light.
电阻取决于长度（正比）、横截面积（反比）、材料和温度。白炽灯的电阻随温度升高而增大，而热敏电阻的电阻随温度升高而减小。光敏电阻 (LDR) 在强光下电阻降低。
9. Circuits and Resistance | 电路与电阻
Circuit diagrams use standard symbols for components. In a series circuit, current is the same everywhere; total resistance is the sum Rₜ = R₁ + R₂ + .... The supply voltage is shared across components in proportion to their resistance.
电路图使用标准元件符号。在串联电路中，电流处处相等；总电阻为和：Rₜ = R₁ + R₂ + ...。电源电压按电阻比例分配给各元件。
In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each branch is equal to the supply voltage. The total current is the sum of branch currents. Total resistance decreases as more branches are added: 1/Rₜ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ... .
在并联电路中，各支路两端电压等于电源电压。总电流等于各支路电流之和。随着更多支路加入，总电阻减小：1/Rₜ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ...。
Electrical power: P = IV, P = I²R, P = V²/R. Energy transferred: E = IVt. Fuses and circuit breakers protect circuits from excessive current.
电功率：P = IV，P = I²R，P = V²/R。转移的能量：E = IVt。保险丝和断路器保护电路免受过量电流的损害。
10. Electromagnetic Effects | 电磁效应
When a current passes through a wire, a magnetic field is produced. The right-hand grip rule gives the direction of the field. A solenoid creates a uniform magnetic field similar to a bar magnet; inserting an iron core makes an electromagnet.
当电流通过导线时，会产生磁场。右手螺旋定则给出磁场方向。螺线管产生与条形磁铁相似的均匀磁场；插入铁芯可制成电磁铁。
A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force if the current is not parallel to the field. Fleming's left-hand rule predicts the direction of force (motor effect). The force is greatest when current is perpendicular to the field.
位于磁场中的载流导体，如果电流与磁场不平行，就会受到力的作用。弗莱明左手定则预测力的方向（电动机效应）。当电流垂直于磁场时力最大。
Electromagnetic induction: when a conductor moves through a magnetic field, or when the field changes, a potential difference (induced e.m.f.) is generated. The direction can be found using Fleming's right-hand rule (generator effect). The induced e.m.f. increases with faster movement, stronger field, and more turns in a coil.
电磁感应：当导体在磁场中运动，或磁场变化时，会产生电势差（感应电动势）。方向可由弗莱明右手定则（发电机效应）判断。感应电动势随着运动加快、磁场增强和线圈匝数增加而增大。
Transformers change the voltage of an alternating current. For an ideal transformer: Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ. Power is conserved: VₚIₚ = VₛIₛ.
变压器改变交流电的电压。对于理想变压器：Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ。功率守恒：VₚIₚ = VₛIₛ。
11. Atomic Physics and Radioactivity | 原子物理与放射性
Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. Proton number (atomic number) defines the element. Isotopes have the same proton number but different neutron numbers.
原子由包含质子和中子的原子核以及绕核运动的电子组成。质子数（原子序数）决定了元素。同位素质子数相同但中子数不同。
Radioactive decay is a random process in which unstable nuclei emit radiation. Three types: alpha (α) – helium nuclei, highly ionising, low penetration; beta (β) – fast electrons, moderate ionisation and penetration; gamma (γ) – electromagnetic waves, low ionisation, very penetrating.
放射性衰变是一种随机过程，不稳定的原子核会发出辐射。三种类型：α 粒子——氦核，电离能力强，穿透力弱；β 粒子——高速电子，电离能力和穿透力中等；γ 射线——电磁波，电离能力弱，穿透力极强。
Background radiation comes from natural sources (rocks, cosmic rays) and artificial sources. The half-life is the time taken for half the nuclei in a sample to decay, or for the count rate to halve. It is constant for a given isotope.
背景辐射来自天然源（岩石、宇宙射线）和人工源。半衰期是样本中一半原子核发生衰变，或计数率减半所需的时间。对于给定的同位素，半衰期是恒定的。
Uses of radioactivity include medical tracers (gamma, short half-life), sterilisation (gamma), and thickness monitoring (beta). Safety precautions: use tongs, keep sources at a distance, store in lead containers.
放射性的用途包括医学示踪剂（伽马射线，短半衰期）、灭菌（伽马射线）以及厚度监测（β 粒子）。安全预防措施：使用钳子，保持距离，存放在铅容器中。
12. Space Physics | 宇宙物理学
The Earth rotates on its axis once every 24 hours, causing day and night, and orbits the Sun in 365.25 days. The Moon orbits the Earth, showing phases due to the changing portion of its illuminated side visible from Earth.
地球每 24 小时自转一周，形成昼夜，每 365.25 天绕太阳公转一周。月球绕地球运行，由于从地球看到其被照亮部分的变化而呈现月相。
The Solar System consists of the Sun, planets, dwarf planets, asteroids and comets. Planets orbit in ellipses, and their orbital speed varies. The closer a planet is to the Sun, the greater its orbital speed and the shorter its orbital period.
太阳系由太阳、行星、矮行星、小行星和彗星组成。行星沿椭圆轨道运行，轨道速度会变化。行星离太阳越近，轨道速度越大，公转周期越短。
The lifecycle of a star depends on its mass. A star like the Sun will expand into a red giant, then shed its outer layers to form a planetary nebula, leaving behind a white dwarf. More massive stars become red supergiants, explode as supernovae, and leave behind neutron stars or black holes.
恒星的生命周期取决于其质量。像太阳这样的恒星会膨胀为红巨星，然后抛射外层形成行星状星云，留下白矮星。质量更大的恒星变成红超巨星，发生超新星爆发，留下中子星或黑洞。
Orbital motion is explained by gravitational attraction providing the centripetal force. The universe began with the Big Bang; evidence includes galactic redshift and cosmic microwave background radiation. Redshift shows distant galaxies are moving away, indicating expansion.
轨道运动由万有引力提供向心力来解释。宇宙始于大爆炸；证据包括星系红移和宇宙微波背景辐射。红移表明遥远星系正在远离，表明宇宙在膨胀。
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