📚 Year 11 Cambridge Law: Core Concepts Review | Year 11 Cambridge 法律：核心知识点梳理
This revision guide distils the essential core knowledge for Year 11 Cambridge IGCSE Law. It summarises key principles, landmark cases and statutory provisions that students must understand to perform well in the examination, from the nature of law to human rights.
本复习指南浓缩了 Year 11 Cambridge IGCSE 法律课程的核心知识点。它总结了学生为在考试中取得好成绩必须理解的关键原则、标志性案例和法规条文，涵盖从法律性质到人权的全部内容。
1. The Nature and Purpose of Law | 法律的性质与目的
Law is a system of rules created by the state and enforced through the courts to regulate behaviour, maintain order and deliver justice. It differs from moral rules because non‑compliance leads to formal sanctions such as fines or imprisonment.
法律是由国家制定、通过法院执行的规则体系，用以规范行为、维持秩序并实现正义。它与道德规则的不同之处在于，不遵守法律会带来罚款或监禁等正式制裁。
The rule of law means that everyone – including the government – is subject to the law, and laws must be clear, public, fairly applied and protect fundamental rights. This principle underpins the entire legal system.
法治意味着包括政府在内的所有人都必须服从法律，且法律必须明确、公开、被公正适用并保护基本权利。这一原则是整个法律体系的基石。
2. Sources of Law | 法律的渊源
Statute law (legislation) is made by Parliament and is the supreme form of domestic law. Delegated legislation allows ministers or local authorities to make detailed rules under a parent Act.
成文法（立法）由议会制定，是国内最高形式的法律。授权立法允许部长或地方当局在母法之下制定详细规则。
Common law (case law) is judge‑made law developed through the doctrine of precedent. Lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts when the material facts are sufficiently similar, ensuring consistency and predictability.
普通法（判例法）是法官通过遵循先例原则逐步发展的法律。当下级法院面对的关键事实与上级法院的先前判决充分相似时，必须遵循该判决，以保证一致性和可预见性。
The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporates the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law, allowing individuals to enforce Convention rights in domestic courts without going to Strasbourg.
《1998 年人权法案》将《欧洲人权公约》纳入英国法律，使个人无需前往斯特拉斯堡即可在国内法院主张公约权利。
3. The Court System and Legal Personnel | 法院体系与法律人员
Criminal courts include the Magistrates' Court for less serious summary offences and the Crown Court for indictable offences and trials with a jury. Appeals go to the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) and ultimately the Supreme Court.
刑事法院包括审理较轻即决犯罪的治安法院，以及审理可公诉罪行并设有陪审团的刑事法院。上诉途径依次为上诉法院（刑事庭）和最高法院。
Civil courts resolve disputes between individuals and organisations. The County Court handles small claims and moderate civil cases, while the High Court (King's Bench, Chancery, Family) deals with complex and high‑value matters.
民事法院解决个人与组织之间的纠纷。郡法院处理小额索赔和一般民事案件，而高等法院（王座庭、大法官庭、家事庭）则审理复杂、高额的事务。
Solicitors provide legal advice, prepare documents and instruct barristers. Barristers specialise in court advocacy and have rights of audience in all courts. Both play vital roles in ensuring access to justice.
事务律师提供法律咨询、准备文件并委托出庭律师。出庭律师专攻法庭辩护并在所有法院享有出庭发言权。两者在保障司法救济方面都起着关键作用。
4. Criminal Law: Actus Reus and Mens Rea | 刑法：犯罪行为与犯罪意图
To secure a conviction, the prosecution must prove beyond reasonable doubt that the defendant possessed both the actus reus (guilty act) and mens rea (guilty mind) for the offence, unless it is a crime of strict liability.
要获得定罪，控方必须排除合理怀疑地证明被告人具备该罪行的犯罪行为和犯罪意图，除非该罪行属于严格责任犯罪。
Actus reus can be an act, an omission where a legal duty exists (e.g., R v Pittwood 1902 – failing to close a railway gate), or a state of affairs. Mens rea includes intention, recklessness (as defined in R v Cunningham 1957), negligence and knowledge.
犯罪行为可以是一种作为、负有法律义务时的作为（例如 R v Pittwood 1902 中未关闭铁路闸门），或一种状态。犯罪意图包括故意、轻率（如 R v Cunningham 1957 所界定）、疏忽和明知。
Strict liability offences, common in regulatory matters such as selling food past its use‑by date, require no mens rea for at least one element of the actus reus, making it easier to prosecute but harder to defend.
严格责任犯罪常见于出售过期食品等管理事项，对犯罪行为中至少一个要素不要求犯罪意图，这使起诉更容易但辩护更难。
5. Non‑fatal Offences Against the Person | 非致命人身犯罪
Assault is intentionally or recklessly causing the victim to apprehend immediate unlawful force; no physical contact is needed. Battery is the actual infliction of unlawful force, such as a push or a slap.
威胁罪指故意或轻率地使被害人担心即将遭受非法暴力，无需身体接触。殴击罪指实际施加非法武力，如推搡或掌掴。
Assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH) under s.47 OAPA 1861 requires proof of an assault or battery that causes harm more than transient or trifling, including psychological injury (R v Miller 1954).
根据《1861 年侵害人身罪法》第 47 条，造成实际身体伤害的威胁或殴击（ABH）要求证明威胁或殴击导致了超越短暂或轻微的伤害，包括心理伤害（R v Miller 1954）。
Section 20 malicious wounding or inflicting grievous bodily harm (GBH) requires intention or recklessness as to some harm, while s.18 wounding with intent demands specific intent to cause serious harm, carrying a maximum life sentence.
第 20 条恶意伤人或造成严重身体伤害（GBH）要求意图或轻率导致某种伤害；而第 18 条意图重伤则要求具有造成严重伤害的特定意图，最高可判终身监禁。
6. Fatal Offences: Murder and Manslaughter | 致命犯罪：谋杀与过失杀人
Murder is the unlawful killing of a human being under the King's Peace with malice aforethought – intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm. It carries a mandatory life sentence.
谋杀是在君主和平秩序下，怀有恶意预谋——杀人或造成严重身体伤害的意图——非法杀死一个人。法定刑期为终身监禁。
Voluntary manslaughter applies when the defendant has the actus reus and mens rea of murder but successfully raises a partial defence: diminished responsibility (s.2 Homicide Act 1957), loss of control (Coroners and Justice Act 2009) or a suicide pact.
自愿过失杀人适用于被告人已具备谋杀的犯罪行为和犯罪意图，但成功提出局部抗辩：减轻责任（1957 年杀人法第 2 条）、失去控制（2009 年验尸官与司法法）或自杀协定。
Involuntary manslaughter covers killings without intent to kill or cause GBH. Unlawful act manslaughter requires an unlawful and objectively dangerous act that causes death (R v Church 1966). Gross negligence manslaughter requires a
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