📚 Year 11 AQA Sociology: Key Terms Fast-Track Guide | AQA 社会学核心术语速记指南
Welcome to your fast-track guide for mastering the essential terminology in AQA GCSE Sociology (Year 11). A precise grasp of key terms underpins every high-scoring response, helping you write analytically and demonstrate conceptual depth. This guide breaks down the most frequently examined concepts into clear, concise definitions with practical examples, organised by topic for easy revision.
欢迎来到这份 AQA GCSE 社会学（11 年级）核心术语速记指南。精准掌握关键术语是高分答案的基石，能让你在考试中写出具有分析深度的答案，展现概念理解。本指南将最高频的考点概念提炼成清晰、简洁的定义并配以实例，按主题编列，方便快速复习。
1. Foundational Theories | 基础理论术语
Functionalism is a structural consensus theory viewing society as a system of interconnected institutions (family, education, economy) that work together to maintain social stability and value consensus. Key sociologists: Durkheim, Parsons.
功能主义是一种结构共识理论，将社会视为由相互关联的制度（家庭、教育、经济）组成的系统，这些制度协同运作以维持社会稳定和价值观共识。代表人物：迪尔凯姆、帕森斯。
Marxism is a structural conflict theory arguing that society is divided into two main classes – bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers) – and that conflict over resources drives social change. Key thinker: Karl Marx.
马克思主义是一种结构冲突理论，主张社会分为两大阶级——资产阶级（所有者）和无产阶级（工人），对资源的冲突是推动社会变革的动力。代表人物：卡尔·马克思。
Feminism is a conflict perspective highlighting gender inequality and patriarchy, asserting that society is structured to benefit men and disadvantage women. Variants include liberal, Marxist and radical feminism.
女性主义是一种冲突视角，强调性别不平等与父权制，主张社会结构偏袒男性、使女性处于不利地位。流派包括自由女性主义、马克思主义女性主义和激进女性主义。
Interactionism takes a micro-level approach, focusing on small-scale interactions and the meanings individuals attach to actions. It argues that labels and interpretations shape social reality, rather than large structures.
互动论采用微观视角，聚焦小规模互动以及个体赋予行为的意义。它认为标签和诠释塑造了社会现实，而非宏大结构。
Social action theory (Weber) emphasises that to understand society, we must interpret the meanings and motives behind human behaviour (verstehen). It acknowledges both structure and individual agency.
社会行动理论（韦伯）强调，要理解社会，必须诠释人类行为背后的意义和动机（理解，verstehen）。它同时承认社会结构和个体能动性。
2. Research Methods | 研究方法术语
Validity refers to whether a research method produces a true or authentic picture of what is being studied. High validity means the findings accurately reflect reality. For example, in-depth interviews often yield valid data.
效度指研究方法是否呈现出研究对象的真实状况。高效度意味着研究结果准确地反映了现实。例如，深度访谈常能获得高效度的资料。
Reliability means consistency; if another researcher repeated the study using the same procedure, they would get similar results. Questionnaires with closed questions tend to have high reliability.
信度指一致性；如果另一位研究者使用相同的程序重复这项研究，会得到相似的结果。采用封闭式问题的问卷通常信度较高。
Sampling is selecting a subset from the target population. Common methods: random sampling (everyone has equal chance), stratified sampling (proportional representation of key groups) and opportunity sampling (whoever is available).
抽样是从目标总体中选取一个子集。常用方法：随机抽样（每个人都有均等机会）、分层抽样（按关键群体的比例抽取）和便利抽样（选择方便接触到的人）。
Ethical issues concern moral principles guiding research, such as informed consent (participants know and agree), confidentiality (data kept private) and avoidance of harm. BSA guidelines help sociologists navigate these.
伦理问题涉及指导研究的道德原则，例如知情同意（参与者知情并同意）、保密（数据不外泄）和避免伤害。英国社会学协会（BSA）的指南帮助社会学家处理这些议题。
Primary data is information collected firsthand by the researcher for the specific purpose (e.g., observations, interviews). Secondary data is information already collected by someone else, such as official statistics or historical documents.
一手数据是由研究者为实现特定目的而亲自收集的信息（如观察、访谈）。二手数据是他人已收集好的信息，例如官方统计数据或历史文献。
3. Education: Key Vocabulary | 教育：核心词汇
Material deprivation means lacking physical resources (inadequate housing, poor diet, lack of educational materials) that can hinder educational achievement. Working-class pupils are more likely to experience it.
物质剥夺指缺乏足以阻碍学业成就的物质资源（如住房条件差、营养不良、缺少学习材料）。工人阶级家庭的学生更可能经历物质剥夺。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu) refers to the knowledge, language, attitudes and values possessed by the middle class that align with those valued in education, giving these pupils an advantage.
文化资本（布迪厄）指中产阶级所掌握的、与教育系统看重的知识、语言、态度和价值观，这让中产学生拥有优势。
Labelling (Becker) is the process of attaching a definition or label to a student (e.g., "troublemaker", "bright"). Teachers' labels can influence their interactions and students' self-concept, often based on stereotypes.
标签化（贝克尔）是给一个学生贴上某种定义或标签的过程（如“捣蛋鬼”、“聪明”）。教师贴的标签会影响师生互动和学生的自我认知，且常基于刻板印象。
Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a label becomes true because the student internalises it and acts accordingly. For example, a pupil labelled as low-ability might stop trying, thereby failing.
自我实现的预言指标签因学生内化并据此行事而成真。例如一名被贴上低能标签的学生可能不再努力，结果真的失败。
Setting and streaming: streaming places students into different fixed ability groups for all subjects; setting groups them by ability for individual subjects. Both can reinforce labelling and widen the achievement gap.
分层与分流：分流（streaming）将学生按能力分到固定的班级上所有课程；分层（setting）则是按单科能力分组。二者都可能强化标签效应，拉大成绩差距。
4. Families & Households | 家庭与住户术语
Nuclear family consists of a married opposite-sex couple and their dependent children living together as a single unit. Functionalists see it as the ideal family form for socialisation.
核心家庭由一对已婚异性夫妇及其需要抚养的子女组成，作为一个独立单元共同生活。功能主义者视其为最适合社会化的理想家庭形式。
Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, often living nearby or together. It provides wider support networks, especially in some cultures.
大家庭包括核心家庭以外的亲属，如祖父母、叔伯姨舅等，通常住得很近或同住。它能提供更广的支持网络，在一些文化中尤为常见。
Symmetrical family (Young and Willmott) describes a family type where roles of husband and wife become more similar: both partners share decision-making, paid work and domestic tasks more equally.
对称家庭（杨和威尔莫特）描述夫妻角色变得更相似的家庭类型：双方更平等地分担决策、有偿工作和家务劳动。
Cohabitation is when an unmarried couple living together in a sexual relationship. Rising cohabitation in the UK reflects changing norms, secularisation and women's economic independence.
同居指未结婚的伴侣以性关系共同生活。英国同居率上升反映了社会规范的变迁、世俗化以及女性的经济独立。
Divorce rate – the number of divorces per 1,000 married people per year. Increased divorce rates have been linked to legal changes (e.g., 1969 Divorce Reform Act), less stigma and greater expectations of marriage.
离婚率——每年每千名已婚人口中的离婚数量。离婚率上升与法律变革（如 1969 年离婚改革法案）、污名减少及人们对婚姻的更高期望有关。
5. Crime & Deviance | 犯罪与越轨术语
Deviance refers to behaviour that goes against social norms or expectations, but may not be illegal. For example, wearing unusual clothes or breaking a queue is deviant but not criminal.
越轨指违背社会规范或期待的行为，但不一定违法。例如，穿着奇装异服或插队属于越轨，却非犯罪。
Social control involves ways society regulates behaviour. Formal social control is exercised by authorised agencies (police, courts); informal social control comes from family, peers and community through reactions like ridicule or praise.
社会控制涉及社会规范行为的方式。正式社会控制由授权机构（警察、法院）执行；非正式社会控制则来自家庭、同辈及社区，通过嘲笑或表扬等反应来实现。
Anomie (Durkheim) is a state of normlessness where shared values and rules break down, often during rapid social change, leading to increased deviance because individuals lack moral guidance.
失范（迪尔凯姆）指在社会急剧变迁时，共享价值观和规则瓦解的规范缺失状态，个体因缺乏道德指引而出现更高的越轨行为。
White-collar crime (Sutherland) is crime committed by people in relatively high-status positions, typically during their occupation, such as fraud, embezzlement or insider trading. It is less visible than street crime.
白领犯罪（萨瑟兰）指地位较高的人在职业过程中犯下的罪行，如欺诈、挪用公款或内幕交易。相对于街头犯罪，它更不显眼。
Moral panic (Cohen) occurs when the media, public and authorities overreact to a group or behaviour, amplifying deviance and creating a spiral of concern that justifies a crackdown. Example: the Mods and Rockers.
道德恐慌（科恩）当媒体、公众和当局对某一群体或行为过度反应时，越轨被放大，形成担忧的螺旋，进而为打压行动提供借口。例如：摩登派和摇滚派事件。
6. Social Stratification | 社会分层术语
Social stratification is the hierarchical division of society into layers (strata) based on factors like class, wealth, status and power. It creates structured inequality in life chances.
社会分层是根据阶级、财富、地位和权力等因素将社会划分为等级层次（阶层）的体系。这种分层造成了结构性的生活机会不平等。
Life chances (Weber) refer to the opportunities individuals have to achieve desirable things in life, such as good health, education and long life, which are strongly influenced by social class background.
生活机会（韦伯）指个人在生活中获得良好事物（如健康、优质教育和长寿）的机会，这些机会深受社会阶级背景的影响。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between social strata. Intergenerational mobility compares parent and child positions; intragenerational mobility tracks movement within a person's own lifetime.
社会流动指个人或群体在社会阶层之间的移动。代际流动比较父母与子女的地位；代内流动追踪个人一生中的阶层变动。
Absolute poverty is a severe deprivation of basic human needs (food, safe drinking water, shelter). In the UK, it is often measured as living below a fixed income threshold irrespective of overall living standards.
绝对贫困是指基本生存需求（食物、安全饮水、住所）严重匮乏的状况。在英国，常以低于某一固定收入门槛来衡量，而不考虑整体生活标准。
Relative poverty measures individuals or households whose resources fall significantly below the average in that society, excluding them from normal participation. The UK defines it as income below 60% of median household income.
相对贫困衡量资源显著低于社会平均水平、从而无法正常参与社会生活的个人或家庭。英国将其定义为收入低于家庭收入中位数的 60%。
7. Important Sociologists | 重要社会学家
Emile Durkheim – a founding functionalist; studied social solidarity, anomie and the function of crime (boundary maintenance). His work on suicide demonstrated the impact of social integration.
埃米尔·迪尔凯姆——功能主义奠基人；研究社会团结、失范及犯罪的功能（边界维持）。他对自杀的研究揭示了社会整合程度的影响。
Karl Marx – conflict theorist who argued that capitalist society is based on class conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. He predicted that exploitation would lead to revolution and a classless society.
卡尔·马克思——冲突理论家，主张资本主义社会建立在资产阶级与无产阶级的阶级冲突之上。他预言剥削将导致革命和无阶级社会。
Max Weber – proposed a multi-dimensional view of stratification (class, status, party) and advocated verstehen (interpretive understanding) in sociology. He also examined the role of rationalisation and bureaucracy.
马克斯·韦伯——提出多维度分层观（阶级、地位、党派），倡导社会学中的“理解”（verstehen）。他也研究了理性化与科层制的作用。
Howard Becker – interactionist and key labelling theorist. He argued that no act is inherently deviant; deviance is created when others label it as such. "The outsiders" is his famous concept.
霍华德·贝克尔——互动论者，关键标签理论家。他主张没有哪种行为天然就是越轨的，越轨是他人如此标签后才形成的。“局外人”是其著名概念。
Pierre Bourdieu – theorist of cultural reproduction, who identified three forms of capital: economic, cultural and social. He argued that the education system rewards middle-class cultural capital, maintaining inequality.
皮埃尔·布迪厄——文化再生产理论家，区分了三种资本形式：经济资本、文化资本和社会资本。他认为教育系统奖赏中产阶级的文化资本，从而维持不平等。
8. Exam Command Words | 考试指令词
Describe – provide a detailed account of characteristics or trends, without analysis. Show what something is or how it works; for example, describe patterns of educational achievement.
描述——详述特征或趋势，无需分析。展示某事物是什么或如何运作；例如，描述教育成就的模式。
Explain – give reasons or causes, showing how one thing leads to another. You should use sociological concepts and evidence to clarify why something occurs.
解释——给出原因或缘由，说明一事物如何导致另一事物。应当运用社会学概念和证据阐明事情为何发生。
Discuss – explore different sides of an issue, presenting arguments and counter-arguments. You are expected to weigh up evidence and reach a reasoned conclusion, often in longer essay questions.
讨论——探讨问题的不同方面，提出论点与反论点。需要在长答题中权衡证据，得出有逻辑的结论。
Evaluate – make a judgement about the strengths and weaknesses of a theory, method or argument, backing your evaluation with evidence. Often linked to "to what extent" questions.
评价——对理论、方法或论点的优缺点做出判断，并以证据支持评价。常与“在多大程度上”类问题关联。
Analyse – break down information into parts and examine how they interrelate, considering the significance or effect. It goes beyond just describing to interpreting patterns and connections.
分析——将信息分解为组成部分，审视其关联，并考量其意义或影响。这超越了单纯描述，达到对模式和关联的解读。
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