📚 Vocabulary and Terminology Quick Revision Guide for Year 11 SQA Psychology | SQA心理学词汇术语速记指南
Understanding the key terminology in SQA National 5 Psychology is essential for answering exam questions accurately and demonstrating subject knowledge. This guide breaks down the most important terms across all major topics, pairing each English definition with its Chinese equivalent to help bilingual learners master the vocabulary quickly and efficiently. Use these go-to definitions as part of your active revision routine.
掌握SQA国家5级心理学中的关键术语，对于准确回答考试题目和展示学科知识至关重要。本指南将各主要专题的重要术语逐一梳理，每个英文定义都配有对应的中文释义，旨在帮助双语学习者快速、高效地掌握这些词汇。请将这些核心定义作为你主动复习计划的一部分来使用。
1. Research Methods: Key Variables & Designs | 研究方法：关键变量与设计
In SQA Psychology, research methods lay the foundation for understanding how studies are conducted. Below are the essential terms for variables, hypotheses, and experimental designs.
在SQA心理学中，研究方法为理解如何开展研究奠定了基础。以下是关于变量、假设和实验设计的关键术语。
Independent Variable (IV) – The factor that the researcher deliberately manipulates or changes to observe its effect on another variable.
自变量 (IV) – 研究者为观察其对另一变量的影响而有意操纵或改变的因素。
Dependent Variable (DV) – The factor that is measured in an experiment; it is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the IV.
因变量 (DV) – 在实验中测量的因素；预计它会随自变量的操纵而发生变化。
Confounding Variable – An unwanted variable that varies systematically with the IV and could potentially distort the results by offering an alternative explanation.
混淆变量 – 一种不想要的变量，与自变量系统地一起变化，可能通过提供替代解释而扭曲结果。
Operationalisation – Clearly defining how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study so that it can be tested precisely.
操作化 – 明确界定研究中变量将如何被测量或操纵，以便能够精确检验。
Hypothesis – A testable, precise prediction about the relationship between the IV and DV. A directional hypothesis states the expected direction of the difference, while a non-directional hypothesis simply predicts a difference.
假设 – 关于自变量和因变量之间关系的可检验的精确预测。方向性假设说明预期的差异方向，而非方向性假设只预测存在差异。
Independent Groups Design – An experimental design in which different participants are allocated to each condition of the IV, ensuring that each person takes part in only one level.
独立组设计 – 一种实验设计，将不同的参与者分配到自变量的各个条件中，确保每个人只参加一个水平。
Repeated Measures Design – An experimental design where the same participants are exposed to all conditions of the IV, allowing direct comparison within the same group.
重复测量设计 – 一种实验设计，相同的参与者接受自变量所有条件的测试，允许在同一群体内进行直接比较。
2. Ethical Considerations in Psychology | 心理学中的伦理考量
Ethical principles protect the wellbeing of participants and guide psychologists in conducting responsible research. Master these terms to evaluate studies critically.
伦理原则保护参与者的福祉，并指导心理学家进行负责任的研究。掌握这些术语，以便批判性地评价各项研究。
Informed Consent – Participants must be given clear information about the aims and procedures of the study, and they must voluntarily agree to take part before it begins.
知情同意 – 必须向参与者提供关于研究目的和程序的明确信息，并且在研究开始前他们必须自愿同意参加。
Deception – Deliberately misleading participants about the true purpose of the study. It must be justified, and a thorough debriefing is required afterwards.
欺骗 – 故意就研究的真实目的误导参与者。这种做法必须有正当理由，并且事后需进行彻底的知情通报。
Right to Withdraw – Participants can stop participating and leave the study at any time without giving a reason, and their data can be withdrawn upon request.
退出权利 – 参与者可以在任何时候停止参与并退出研究，无需给出理由，并且可根据要求撤回其数据。
Confidentiality – Any personal information obtained from participants must be protected and not disclosed without their permission; data is usually anonymised.
保密性 – 从参与者处获得的任何个人信息都必须受到保护，未经许可不得泄露；数据通常会进行匿名化处理。
Protection from Harm – Researchers must ensure that participants are not exposed to physical or psychological harm greater than what they would encounter in everyday life.
免受伤害 – 研究者必须确保参与者不会遭遇超出日常生活中可能遇到的生理或心理伤害。
Debriefing – After the study, participants are informed about the true nature of the research, especially if deception was used, and any concerns are addressed.
知情通报 – 研究结束后，向参与者告知研究的真实性质，尤其在使用欺骗的情况下，并处理他们的任何疑虑。
3. Memory: The Multi-Store Model | 记忆：多贮存模型
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes memory as a flow of information through three separate stores. Knowing these terms helps you describe the structure and processes of memory.
多贮存模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin，1968）将记忆描述为信息流经三个独立贮存库的过程。了解这些术语有助于你描述记忆的结构和过程。
Sensory Memory – The initial, brief store that holds raw sensory impressions for a fraction of a second. It has a large capacity but a very short duration.
感觉记忆 – 最初的短暂贮存库，在几分之一秒内保存原始的感觉印象。它具有较大的容量，但持续时间极短。
Short-Term Memory (STM) – A temporary store with a limited capacity (7±2 items) and a duration of around 18–30 seconds, where information is held through rehearsal.
短时记忆 (STM) – 一种临时贮存库，容量有限（7±2个项目），持续时间约18–30秒，信息通过复述得以保持。
Long-Term Memory (LTM) – A store with potentially unlimited capacity and duration, holding memories that have been encoded and can be retrieved later.
长时记忆 (LTM) – 容量和持续时间几乎无限的贮存库，保存已编码的记忆，稍后可以提取。
Encoding – The process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored. In STM encoding is mainly acoustic, while in LTM it is largely semantic.
编码 – 将感觉信息转换为可存储形式的过程。在短时记忆中主要以声学编码为主，而在长时记忆中则大都为语义编码。
Capacity – The amount of information a memory store can hold; for STM it is limited to about 5–9 chunks, while LTM has a vast capacity.
容量 – 记忆贮存库所能容纳的信息量；短时记忆的容量有限，约为5–9个组块，而长时记忆的容量巨大。
Duration – The length of time information remains in a memory store; sensory memory lasts less than a second, STM up to 30 seconds, and LTM can last a lifetime.
持续时间 – 信息在记忆贮存库中保留的时间长度；感觉记忆持续不足一秒，短时记忆可达30秒，长时记忆可以持续一生。
Rehearsal – The conscious repetition of information to keep it in STM and transfer it to LTM. Maintenance rehearsal simply repeats, while elaborative rehearsal links new info to existing knowledge.
复述 – 有意识地重复信息，使之保持在短时记忆中并转移到长时记忆。维持性复述只是简单重复，而精细复述将新信息与已有知识联系起来。
4. Memory: Working Memory & Forgetting | 记忆：工作记忆与遗忘
Baddeley and Hitch's working memory model expands our understanding of STM, and theories of forgetting explain why we lose information. These terms are central to explaining memory in detail.
Baddeley和Hitch的工作记忆模型扩展了我们对短时记忆的理解，而遗忘理论则解释了信息为何会丢失。这些术语是详细解释记忆的核心。
Central Executive – The supervisory component of working memory that allocates attention, monitors incoming data, and coordinates the activities of the slave systems.
中央执行器 – 工作记忆的监控组件，负责分配注意力、监控输入的数据并协调各个从属系统的活动。
Phonological Loop – Deals with auditory and verbal information; it has a phonological store (inner ear) and an articulatory rehearsal process (inner voice).
语音回路 – 处理听觉和言语信息；它包含一个语音贮存器（内耳）和一个发音复述过程（内部声音）。
Visuospatial Sketchpad – Manipulates visual and spatial information, often called the 'inner eye'; it helps us navigate and remember visual layouts.
视空间画板 – 处理视觉和空间信息，常被称为“内部眼睛”；它帮助我们导航和记忆视觉布局。
Episodic Buffer – A temporary, limited-capacity store that integrates information from the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into coherent episodes.
情景缓冲器 – 一个临时的、容量有限的贮存库，它将来自中央执行器、语音回路、视空间画板和长时记忆的信息整合成连贯的情景。
Proactive Interference – When older memories disrupt the recall of newer information. For example, an old phone number interferes with learning a new one.
前摄干扰 – 当旧记忆干扰新信息的回忆时发生的现象。例如，旧的电话号码干扰了记住新号码。
Retroactive Interference – When newer memories disrupt the recall of older information. Learning a new address might make the previous one harder to recall.
倒摄干扰 – 当新记忆干扰旧信息回忆时发生的现象。学习新地址可能会使回忆旧地址变得更加困难。
Decay – The fading of a memory trace over time due to lack of use; a key explanation for forgetting from STM if rehearsal is prevented.
衰退 – 由于未使用而导致记忆痕迹随时间消逝的现象；这是解释在无法复述时导致短时记忆遗忘的重要原因。
5. Social Psychology: Conformity & Obedience | 社会心理学：从众与服从
Social influence shapes our behaviour in powerful ways. Master these terms to analyse conformity and obedience in real-life contexts and classic studies like Asch and Milgram.
社会影响以强有力的方式塑造着我们的行为。掌握这些术语，以便在现实生活情境以及像Asch和Milgram这样的经典研究中分析从众与服从。
Conformity – A change in a person's behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people.
从众 – 由于来自他人或群体的真实或想象的压力，导致个人行为或观点发生变化的现象。
Internalisation – The deepest type of conformity, where an individual genuinely accepts the group's views and they become part of their own belief system, both publicly and privately.
内化 – 最深层的从众类型，个体真正接受了群体的观点，使其成为自己信念体系的一部分，无论是在公开还是私下场合。
Compliance – Superficial conformity where a person goes along with the group publicly but privately maintains their own original views.
顺从 – 表面的从众，个人在公开层面附和群体，但在私下仍坚持自己的原始观点。
Identification – A type of conformity where an individual changes their public behaviour and private beliefs only while they value membership of the group; it is temporary.
认同 – 一种从众类型，当个体重视群体成员身份时，他们改变了公开行为和私下信念，但这只是暂时的。
Obedience – Following a direct order from an authority figure, even if it goes against one's personal values. Milgram's study illustrated this powerfully.
服从 – 遵循权威人物的直接指令，即使这违背了个人的价值观。Milgram的实验有力地展示了这一点。
Agentic State – A mental state proposed by Milgram in which an individual sees themselves as an agent carrying out another person's wishes, thereby displacing personal responsibility.
代理状态 – 由Milgram提出的一种心理状态，个体将自己视为执行他人意愿的代理人，从而转移了个人责任。
Legitimacy of Authority – The perception that an individual has the right to give orders because of their position or status. This was a factor influencing obedience in Milgram's variations.
权威的合法性 – 由于某人的职位或身份，人们认为其有权发号施令的看法。这是在Milgram的变式实验中影响服从的一个因素。
6. Social Psychology: Attitudes & Prejudice | 社会心理学：态度与偏见
Understanding the structure of attitudes and the roots of prejudice is vital for topics on social cognition. These definitions clarify the key concepts.
理解态度的结构和偏见的根源对于社会认知专题至关重要。以下定义阐明了关键概念。
Attitude (ABC Model) – An evaluation of an object, person, or idea consisting of three components: Affective (feelings), Behavioural (actions), and Cognitive (beliefs).
态度（ABC模型） – 对某个对象、人或想法的评价，由三个成分组成：情感（感受）、行为（行动）和认知（信念）。
Cognitive Dissonance – An unpleasant feeling of psychological tension that occurs when a person holds two contradictory beliefs or when their behaviour clashes with their attitude; it often leads to attitude change.
认知失调 – 当一个人持有两个相互矛盾的信念，或行为与态度发生冲突时，所产生的一种不愉快的心理紧张感；常导致态度改变。
Prejudice – A negative attitude towards an individual based solely on their membership of a particular group, often involving unfavourable stereotypes.
偏见 – 仅仅基于个体是某个特定群体的成员而对其持有的消极态度，常包含不利的刻板印象。
Discrimination – The behavioural expression of prejudice; acting differently (usually unfairly) towards people because of the group to which they belong.
歧视 – 偏见的行为表现；因其所属的群体而对人采取不同（通常是不公平）的行动。
Stereotype – A cognitive shortcut that involves overgeneralised, fixed beliefs about the characteristics of members of a social group.
刻板印象 – 一种认知捷径，涉及对社会群体成员特征的过度概括的、固定化的信念。
Authoritarian Personality – A dispositional explanation for prejudice; characterised by rigid thinking, hostility towards outgroups, and excessive respect for authority.
权威主义人格 – 一种解释偏见的性格倾向；其特征为思维刻板、对外群体怀有敌意、并对权威过分尊重。
7. Developmental Psychology: Attachment | 发展心理学：依恋
Attachment theory explains the emotional bond between an infant and primary caregiver. These terms cover the Strange Situation categories and Bowlby's key ideas.
依恋理论阐明了婴儿与主要照顾者之间的情感纽带。以下术语涵盖了陌生情境的类别和Bowlby的核心观点。
Attachment – A strong, enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space, most clearly seen in the infant–caregiver relationship.
依恋 – 一种跨越时空将一个人与另一个人联系起来的强烈、持久的情感纽带，在母婴关系中体现得最为明显。
Internal Working Model – A mental framework, formed through early attachment experiences, that influences future relationships and expectations about the self and others.
内部工作模型 – 通过早期依恋经历形成的心理框架，影响着未来的关系以及对自我和他人的期望。
Strange Situation – A controlled observational procedure devised by Ainsworth to assess the quality of attachment between an infant and caregiver through a series of separations and reunions.
陌生情境法 – 由Ainsworth设计的一种控制性观察程序，通过一系列分离与重聚来评估婴儿与照顾者之间的依恋质量。
Secure Attachment – A style in which infants show moderate distress when separated, seek comfort on reunion, and use the caregiver as a safe base. Linked to sensitive responsiveness.
安全型依恋 – 一种依恋类型，婴儿在分离时表现出适度的痛苦，重聚时寻求安慰，并将照顾者用作安全基地。与敏感的回应性相关。
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment – Infants avoid closeness with the caregiver, show little distress upon separation, and ignore the caregiver on reunion. Often linked to a rejecting caregiving style.
不安全回避型依恋 – 婴儿回避与照顾者的亲近，分离时痛苦较少，重聚时忽视照顾者。通常与拒绝性的看护风格相关。
Insecure-Resistant Attachment – Infants are intensely distressed at separation, clingy yet resist comfort upon reunion, displaying ambivalent behaviour. Associated with inconsistent parenting.
不安全矛盾型依恋 – 婴儿在分离时极度痛苦，重聚时既黏人又抗拒安慰，表现出矛盾行为。与不一致的养育方式有关。
Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis – Bowlby's theory that prolonged separation from the mother during the critical period (first 2.5 years) can cause irreversible emotional and intellectual damage.
母爱剥夺假说 – Bowlby的理论，认为在关键期（最初2.5年）内，长时间与母亲分离会造成不可逆转的情感和智力损伤。
8. Developmental Psychology: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development | 发展心理学：皮亚杰的认知发展理论
Piaget's stage theory outlines how children's thinking changes qualitatively. Learn these terms to describe schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and the key milestones of each stage.
皮亚杰的阶段理论概述了儿童思维如何发生质的变化。学习这些术语，以描述图式、同化、顺应以及各个阶段的关键里程碑。
Schema – A mental framework or organised packet of knowledge that helps a child understand and interpret the world; schemas become more complex through experience.
图式 – 一种心理框架或组织化的知识包，帮助儿童理解和解释世界；图式通过经验变得越来越复杂。
Assimilation – When new information is incorporated into an existing schema without changing the schema. For example, calling a zebra a 'horse'.
同化 – 将新信息纳入现有图式而不改变图式的过程。例如，将斑马叫作“马”。
Accommodation – When an existing schema cannot deal with a new experience and must be altered, or a new schema is created. Realising a zebra is a different animal creates accommodation.
顺应 – 当现有图式无法应对新经验，必须被修改或创建新图式的过程。意识到斑马是不同的动物，就发生了顺应。
Equilibrium – A state of cognitive balance when schemas can explain all experiences. Disequilibrium arises when something doesn't fit, motivating the child to achieve equilibrium again via accommodation.
平衡 – 当图式能解释所有经验时所达到的认知平衡状态。当某事不匹配时就产生不平衡，激发儿童通过顺应再次达到平衡。
Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years) – Infants learn through senses and actions. The key achievement is object permanence — the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
感知运动阶段（0–2岁） – 婴儿通过感觉和动作来学习。关键成就是客体永久性——即理解物体即使在看不见时也继续存在。
Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) – Children use symbols (words, images) but cannot perform logical mental operations. A characteristic limitation is egocentrism (inability to see the world from another's perspective).
前运算阶段（2–7岁） – 儿童使用符号（词语、图像），但无法进行逻辑心理运算。一个典型局限是自我中心（无法从他人视角看世界）。
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years) – Children gain the ability to think logically about concrete events and master conservation — understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance (e.g., liquid poured into a different glass).
具体运算阶段（7–11岁） – 儿童获得了对具体事件进行逻辑思考的能力，并掌握了守恒概念——理解尽管外观改变（如液体倒入不同杯子），但量保持不变。
Formal Operational Stage (11+ years) – Adolescents develop the capacity for abstract, systematic reasoning and can solve hypothetical problems. They think about possibilities and moral reasoning matures.
形式运算阶段（11岁以上） – 青少年发展出抽象、系统推理的能力，可以解决假设性问题。他们开始思考可能性，道德推理也日趋成熟。
9. Biological Psychology: Neurons & The Brain | 生物心理学：神经元与大脑
Biological psychology focuses on the nervous system and how the brain gives rise to behaviour. These terms clarify the fundamental units of neural communication and localisation.
生物心理学关注神经系统以及大脑如何产生行为。这些术语阐明了神经通讯的基本单元和大脑功能定位。
Neuron – A specialised cell that transmits nerve impulses; the basic building block of the nervous system. It consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
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