📚 Year 11 SQA Chemistry: Quick Reference Handbook of Formulas and Theorems | SQA 化学公式定理速查手册
This handbook is designed to provide Year 11 SQA Chemistry students with a concise compilation of essential formulas, equations and theorems. It covers key concepts across National 5 and introductory Higher Chemistry, enabling quick revision and problem-solving support.
本手册旨在为学习SQA化学的Year 11学生提供一本凝练的公式、方程和定理汇编，涵盖National 5及Higher化学入门阶段的关键概念，便于快速复习与解题参考。
1. Mole Concept and Avogadro's Constant | 摩尔概念与阿伏伽德罗常数
r amount of substance. One mole contains exactly 6.02 × 10²³ elementary entities (Avogadro's constant, L or Nₐ).
摩尔是物质的量的国际单位。1摩尔物质恰好含有6.02 × 10²³个基本单元，该数值称为阿伏伽德罗常数（L 或 Nₐ）。
N = n × Nₐ
where N is the number of particles, n is the amount in moles, and Nₐ = 6.02 × 10²³ mol⁻¹.
其中 N 为粒子总数，n 为摩尔数，Nₐ = 6.02 × 10²³ mol⁻¹。
- For atoms, ions, molecules or formula units, use the same constant.
- 原子、离子、分子或化学式单元均可使用同一常数。
2. Mass-Mole-Particle Conversions | 质量-摩尔-粒子换算
The relationship between mass, molar mass and amount is fundamental in stoichiometry.
质量、摩尔质量和物质的量之间的关系是化学计量学的基础。
n = m / M
molar mass (g mol⁻¹). Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance, numerically equal to the relative formula mass (RFM) in grams.
其中 n = 物质的量 (mol)，m = 质量 (g)，M = 摩尔质量 (g mol⁻¹)。摩尔质量是1摩尔物质的质量，数值上等于相对化学式量 (RFM) 的克数。
- For elements, use relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) from the data booklet.
- 对于元素，使用数据手册中的相对原子质量 (Aᵣ)。
- For compounds, sum the Aᵣ values of all atoms in the formula.
- 对于化合物，将化学式中所有原子的 Aᵣ 相加。
3. Concentration and Molarity | 浓度与摩尔浓度
Concentration measures how much solute is dissolved in a given volume of solution. The standard unit is mol dm⁻³ (molarity).
浓度表示一定体积溶液中溶质的含量，标准单位为 mol dm⁻³（摩尔浓度）。
c = n / V
ion (mol dm⁻³), n = moles of solute, V = volume of solution (dm³). Note: 1 dm³ = 1000 cm³.
其中 c = 浓度 (mol dm⁻³)，n = 溶质的摩尔数，V = 溶液的体积 (dm³)。注意：1 dm³ = 1000 cm³。
- If volume is given in cm³, convert to dm³ by dividing by 1000: V(dm³) = V(cm³) / 1000.
- 若体积以 cm³ 给出，需除以 1000 化为 dm³：V(dm³) = V(cm³) / 1000。
4. Gases: Molar Volume and Ideal Gas Equation | 气体：摩尔体积与理想气体状态方程
lume of a gas is approximately 24 dm³ mol⁻¹. For exact calculations, the ideal gas equation is used.
在标准状况（SQA通常采用常温常压 r.t.p. = 20 °C, 1 atm）下，气体的摩尔体积约为 24 dm³ mol⁻¹。精确计算时使用理想气体状态方程。
V = n × 24 (at r.t.p.)
V = volume (dm³), n = moles of gas. This is a simplified approach suitable for National 5.
其中 V = 体积 (dm³)，n = 气体的摩尔数。这是适用于 National 5 的简化方法。
For Higher Chemistry, the ideal gas equation is introduced:
对于 Higher 化学，引入理想气体状态方程：
pV = nRT
e (m³), n = moles, R = 8.31 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹, T = temperature (K). To convert °C to K, add 273.
其中 p = 压强 (Pa)，V = 体积 (m³)，n = 摩尔数，R = 8.31 J K⁻¹ mol⁻¹，T = 热力学温度 (K)。将摄氏度转换为开尔文需加 273。
5. Stoichiometry and Limiting Reactants | 化学计量与限量反应物
Stoichiometry uses balanced chemical equations to relate the amounts of reactants and products. The coefficients give the mole ratio.
化学计量法利用已配平的化学方程式关联反应物与产物的物质的量；方程式前的系数即为摩尔比。
aA + bB → cC + dD
limiting reactant is the one that is completely consumed and determines the maximum yield.
摩尔比 A : B : C : D = a : b : c : d。限量反应物是完全消耗的物质，决定了最大产量。
- Identify the limiting reactant by comparing the available moles to the stoichiometric ratio.
- 通过比较可获得的摩尔数与化学计量比来识别限量反应物。
- All calculations should be based on the amount of limiting reactant.
- 所有计算均应基于限量反应物的物质的量。
6. Enthalpy Changes and Calorimetry | 焓变与量热法
The heat energy change during a reaction at constant pressure is the enthalpy change (ΔH). Units: kJ mol⁻¹.
恒压下反应的热量变化称为焓变 (ΔH)，单位为 kJ mol⁻¹。
q = m c ΔT
g), c = specific heat capacity (4.18 J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹ for water), ΔT = temperature change (°C).
其中 q = 热量 (J)，m = 被加热物质的质量（通常为水，g），c = 比热容（水：4.18 J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹），ΔT = 温度变化 (°C)。
ΔH = –q / n
To find molar enthalpy change, divide the heat energy by the moles of reactant used, with sign convention: negative for exothermic, positive for endothermic.
为求得摩尔焓变，用热量除以消耗的反应物的摩尔数，符号规定：放热为负，吸热为正。
- Typical exam calculations: mix acid and base in a polystyrene cup, measure temperature rise.
- 典型考题：将酸和碱在聚苯乙烯杯中混合，测量温升。
7. Rates of Reaction | 反应速率
Reaction rate is the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time. It can be expressed as an average rate or instantaneous rate from a graph.
反应速率是单位时间内反应物或产物浓度的变化，可用平均速率或通过图形求取的瞬时速率表示。
Average rate = Δ[quantity] / Δt
where [quantity] can be mass, volume of gas, or concentration, and t is time.
其中 [quantity] 可以是质量、气体体积或浓度，t 为时间。
Factors affecting rate: temperature, concentration, particle size (surface area), and catalysts. Collision theory explains these effects: particles must collide with sufficient energy (activation energy, Eₐ) and correct orientation.
影响速率的因素：温度、浓度、颗粒大小（表面积）及催化剂。碰撞理论解释这些效应：粒子必须发生有效碰撞，即具有足够的能量（活化能, Eₐ）和正确的取向。
- Rate increases with temperature because more particles have energy ≥ Eₐ.
- 升温使更多粒子能量达到或超过活化能，速率加快。
- Catalysts provide an alternative pathway with lower Eₐ.
- 催化剂提供了活化能更低的反应途径。
8. Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's Principle | 化学平衡与勒夏特列原理
Many reactions are reversible. At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
许多反应是可逆的。平衡时正、逆反应速率相等，各物质浓度保持恒定。
Le Chatelier's principle: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure or temperature, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the change.
勒夏特列原理：若平衡体系受到浓度、压强或温度改变的影响，平衡将向减弱这种改变的方向移动。
- Increasing concentration of a reactant → equilibrium shifts to product side (right).
- 增加反应物浓度 → 平衡向产物方向（右）移动。
- Increasing pressure (gaseous systems) favours side with fewer gas moles.
- 增大压强（气体体系）有利于气体分子数更少的一侧。
- Increasing temperature favours the endothermic direction.
- 升高温度有利于吸热方向。
For quantitative treatment, the equilibrium constant (K) is introduced at Higher level.
在 Higher 层次会引入平衡常数 (K) 进行定量处理。
K = [C]ᶜ[D]ᵈ / [A]ᵃ[B]ᵇ
for aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, where square brackets denote equilibrium concentrations in mol dm⁻³.
对于 aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD，方括号代表平衡浓度 (mol dm⁻³)。
9. Acids and Bases: pH and Neutralisation | 酸碱：pH与中和
An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor; a base is a proton acceptor (Brønsted–Lowry theory). In aqueous solutions, the concentration of H⁺(aq) determines pH.
酸是质子 (H⁺) 给予体，碱是质子接受体（布朗斯特-劳里理论）。水溶液中 H⁺(aq) 的浓度决定 pH。
pH = –log₁₀[H⁺]
where [H⁺] is the hydrogen ion concentration in mol dm⁻³. For strong monoprotic acids, [H⁺] equals the acid concentration.
其中 [H⁺] 为氢离子浓度 (mol dm⁻³)。对于强一元酸，[H⁺] 等于酸的浓度。
lisation: H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l). The mole ratio can be used in titration calculations:
中和反应：H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)。滴定计算中可用于摩尔比：
nₐ / nb = (cₐ Vₐ) / (cb Vb)
where nₐ and nb are the mole ratios from the balanced equation.
其中 nₐ 与 nb 为配平方程式中的摩尔比。
| Indicator | Colour in acid | Colour in neutral | Colour in alkali |
|---|---|---|---|
| Litmus | Red | Purple | Blue |
| Methyl orange | Red | Orange | Yellow |
| Phenolphthalein | Colourless | Colourless | Pink |
中文对照表：
| 指示剂 | 酸性颜色 | 中性颜色 | 碱性颜色 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 石蕊 | 红 | 紫 | 蓝 |
| 甲基橙 | 红 | 橙 | 黄 |
| 酚酞 | 无色 | 无色 | 粉红 |
10. Redox and Electrochemistry | 氧化还原与电化学
Oxidation is loss of electrons; reduction is gain of electrons (OIL RIG). An oxidising agent is reduced; a reducing agent is oxidised.
氧化是失去电子，还原是得到电子（OIL RIG）。氧化剂被还原，还原剂被氧化。
In electrochemical cells, a voltage is produced when two different metals are connected in an electrolyte. The further apart the metals are in the electrochemical series, the greater the cell voltage.
在电化学电池中，两种不同金属在电解液中连接时产生电压。金属在电化学序中的位置相距越远，电池电压越大。
Cell voltage = E°(reduction half-cell) – E°(oxidation half-cell)
For fuel cells (e.g. hydrogen–oxygen), the overall reaction is 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O, producing electrical energy directly.
燃料电池（如氢氧电池）总反应为 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O，直接产生电能。
- Disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells: hydrogen is flammable, storage and transport are challenging.
- 氢燃料电池的缺点：氢气易燃，储运具有挑战性。
- Advantages: only product is water, no CO₂ emissions.
- 优点：唯一产物是水，无二氧化碳排放。
11. Bonding and Structure Basics | 化学键与结构基础
Although not strictly a formula, bonding theories underpin many property predictions. Electronegativity difference determines bond type.
虽不属于严格公式，但成键理论支撑着许多性质的预测。电负性差值决定键的类型。
General rules for SQA:
- Ionic bonding: between metal and non-metal; lattice structure; high mp/bp, conduct when molten/dissolved.
- 离子键：金属与非金属之间；晶格结构；熔沸点高，熔融或溶解时导电。
- Covalent molecular: non-metals only; discrete molecules; low mp/bp, poor conductors.
- 共价分子：非金属之间；分立的分子；熔沸点低，导电性差。
- Covalent network: e.g. diamond, graphite, SiO₂; giant structures; very high mp/bp.
- 共价网络：如金刚石、石墨、SiO₂；巨型结构；熔沸点极高。
- Metallic bonding: positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons; malleable, conduct electricity.
- 金属键：阳离子浸于离域电子海；具延展性，导电。
The VSEPR theory predicts molecular shapes based on electron pair repulsion: linear (2 bp), trigonal planar (3 bp), tetrahedral (4 bp), etc.
价层电子对互斥理论 (VSEPR) 基于电子对排斥预测分子形状：直线型 (2 bp)、平面三角型 (3 bp)、四面体型 (4 bp) 等。
12. Percentage Yield and Atom Economy | 产率与原子经济性
These two concepts assess the efficiency and greenness of a chemical process.
这两个概念用于评价化学过程的效率和绿色程度。
Percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%
Theoretical yield is calculated from stoichiometry assuming 100% conversion of limiting reactant. Actual yield is measured experimentally.
理论产率由化学计量比假设限量反应物 100% 转化而计算得到；实际产率通过实验测定。
Atom economy = (RFM of desired product / sum of RFMs of all reactants) × 100%
High atom economy means fewer waste atoms, which is desirable for sustainable chemistry.
高原子经济性意味着较少废弃原子，符合可持续化学的理念。
- Reactions with only one product have 100% atom economy (e.g. addition polymerisation).
- 只有一种产物的反应具有 100% 原子经济性（如加聚反应）。
Published by TutorHao | Chemistry Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
或截图后用「扫一扫 → 相册」选择本图