📚 Year 11 CCEA Chemistry Formula & Theorem Quick Reference | CCEA 化学 11 年级公式定理速查手册
This handbook covers the essential formulas, principles, and key facts for Year 11 CCEA Chemistry. It is designed to help students quickly review atomic structure, bonding, mole calculations, energetics, rates, organic chemistry, and more. Each entry is presented in both English and Chinese to support bilingual learners following the CCEA specification.
本手册涵盖 CCEA 化学 11 年级的核心公式、定理和关键知识点。它旨在帮助学生快速复习原子结构、化学键、摩尔计算、能量变化、反应速率和有机化学等内容。每个条目均以中英双语呈现，为遵循 CCEA 大纲的双语学习者提供支持。
1. Atomic Structure & Periodic Table | 原子结构与元素周期表
Atoms consist of a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons arranged in energy levels (shells) around the nucleus. The atomic number (Z) equals the number of protons, and the mass number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons.
原子由一个包含质子和中子的中心原子核以及核外分层排布的电子组成。原子序数 (Z) 等于质子数，质量数 (A) 是质子数与中子数之和。中性原子中，电子数等于质子数。同位素是质子数相同但中子数不同的同种元素的原子。
- Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) = sum of (isotope mass × % abundance) / 100
- 相对原子质量 (Aᵣ) = Σ (同位素质量 × 丰度百分比) / 100
The Periodic Table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number. Periods are horizontal rows; groups are vertical columns. Elements in the same group have the same number of outer-shell electrons and similar chemical properties.
元素周期表按原子序数递增排列。横行称为周期，纵列称为族。同族元素具有相同的最外层电子数，因此化学性质相似。
2. Chemical Bonding & Structure | 化学键与结构
Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals, involving the transfer of electrons to form oppositely charged ions. The electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions forms a giant ionic lattice. Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electron pairs between non-metal atoms, resulting in simple molecules or giant covalent structures (like diamond, graphite, and SiO₂). Metallic bonding is the attraction between positive metal ions and a sea of delocalised electrons.
离子键形成于金属和非金属之间，通过电子转移形成带相反电荷的离子。正负离子之间的静电吸引力构成巨型离子晶格。共价键涉及非金属原子间电子对的共享，形成简单分子或巨型共价结构（如金刚石、石墨和 SiO₂）。金属键是正金属离子与离域电子海之间的吸引力。
Properties summary: Ionic compounds have high melting points, conduct electricity when molten or in solution. Simple molecular substances have low melting points and do not conduct electricity. Giant covalent structures have very high melting points (diamond does not conduct; graphite conducts due to delocalised electrons). Metals are malleable, ductile, and good conductors.
性质总结：离子化合物熔点高，熔融或溶于水时导电。简单分子物质熔点低，不导电。巨型共价结构熔点极高（金刚石不导电；石墨因离域电子可导电）。金属具有延展性、韧性，是良好的导电体。
3. Chemical Formulae & Equations | 化学式与方程式
ripts. For example, magnesium chloride: Mg²⁺ and Cl⁻ → MgCl₂. Balancing equations ensures that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides. State symbols: (s), (l), (g), (aq).
化学式表示化合物中的元素符号和原子个数比。确定离子化合物化学式时，交叉交换离子电荷数作为下标。例如氯化镁：Mg²⁺ 和 Cl⁻ → MgCl₂。配平方程式需保证每种元素的原子数在两边相等。状态符号：(s)固、(l)液、(g)气、(aq)溶液。
Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms. Molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms. For example, glucose: molecular formula C₆H₁₂O₆, empirical formula CH₂O. The empirical formula can be calculated from mass or percentage composition.
经验式（最简式）是原子个数的最简整数比。分子式表示实际原子个数。例如葡萄糖：分子式 C₆H₁₂O₆，经验式 CH₂O。经验式可以通过质量或质量百分比计算得出。
4. The Mole Concept & Calculations | 摩尔概念与计算
nt). The mass of one mole of a substance is its molar mass (M) in g/mol, numerically equal to the relative formula mass (Mᵣ).
摩尔是物质的量的单位。1 摩尔精确含有 6.022 × 10²³ 个微粒（阿佛加德罗常数）。1 摩尔物质的质量即其摩尔质量 (M)，单位为 g/mol，数值上与其相对式量 (Mᵣ) 相等。
n = m / M (amount = mass / molar mass)
n = m / M（物质的量 = 质量 / 摩尔质量）
mount (n) / volume (V). Units: mol/dm³ when volume is in dm³. Converting cm³ to dm³: divide by 1000.
溶液浓度：c = n / V。体积单位为 dm³ 时，浓度单位为 mol/dm³。cm³ 转换为 dm³：除以 1000。
c = n / V
Percentage yield: (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%. Atom economy: (Mᵣ of desired product / sum of Mᵣ of all reactants) × 100%.
产率百分比：(实际产量 / 理论产量) × 100%。原子经济性：(目标产物 Mᵣ / 所有反应物 Mᵣ 总和) × 100%。
5. Acids, Bases & Salts | 酸、碱和盐
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H⁺) in aqueous solution. A base is a substance that neutralises an acid to form a salt and water. An alkali is a soluble base that produces hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water. The strength of an acid depends on the degree of ionisation; pH measures the concentration of H⁺ ions. pH less than 7 is acidic, pH 7 is neutral, pH greater than 7 is alkaline.
酸是在水溶液中产生氢离子 (H⁺) 的物质。碱是能中和酸生成盐和水的物质。可溶性的碱称为碱，在水中产生氢氧根离子 (OH⁻)。酸的强度取决于电离程度；pH 值衡量 H⁺ 浓度。pH < 7 为酸性，pH = 7 为中性，pH > 7 为碱性。
₂O(l). Reactions with carbonates produce salt + water + CO₂. Making soluble salts: acid + metal, acid + insoluble base, acid + carbonate, or by titration for alkali + acid.
中和反应：H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)。与碳酸盐反应生成盐 + 水 + CO₂。可溶性盐的制备：酸 + 金属、酸 + 不溶性碱、酸 + 碳酸盐，或碱与酸的滴定。
Common acids: HCl (hydrochloric), H₂SO₄ (sulfuric), HNO₃ (nitric). Salts formed: chlorides, sulfates, nitrates. Precipitation reactions occur when two solutions produce an insoluble solid.
常见酸：HCl（盐酸）、H₂SO₄（硫酸）、HNO₃（硝酸）。生成的盐：氯化物、硫酸盐、硝酸盐。两种溶液反应生成不溶性固体时发生沉淀反应。
6. Electrolysis | 电解
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound using direct electric current. The electrolyte is the molten or dissolved ionic substance. During electrolysis, cations move to the cathode (negative electrode) where reduction occurs, and anions move to the anode (positive electrode) where oxidation occurs. The mnemonic is 'OIL RIG': Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain of electrons.
电解是利用直流电使离子化合物分解的过程。电解质是熔融或溶解状态的离子化合物。电解时，阳离子移向阴极（负极）发生还原反应，阴离子移向阳极（正极）发生氧化反应。记忆口诀 'OIL RIG'：氧化是失电子，还原是得电子。
In aqueous solutions, the products depend on the relative reactivity and concentration of ions. At the cathode, hydrogen is produced if the metal is more reactive than hydrogen; otherwise the metal is deposited. At the anode, halides often form halogen gases; if no halide, oxygen is produced from water. Half-equations show electron transfer.
在水溶液中，电解产物取决于离子的相对活性和浓度。在阴极，若金属比氢活泼，则产生氢气；否则金属析出。阳极上，卤离子常生成卤素单质；若无卤离子，则由水产生氧气。半反应表示电子转移。
7. Energy Changes in Reactions | 反应中的能量变化
ure decrease. Bond breaking requires energy (endothermic), bond making releases energy (exothermic). The overall energy change ΔH = total energy absorbed for bond breaking – total energy released for bond making.
放热反应向环境释放能量，导致温度升高。吸热反应吸收能量，导致温度降低。断键需要吸收能量（吸热），成键释放能量（放热）。总体能量变化 ΔH = 断键总吸收能量 – 成键总释放能量。
Activation energy is the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur. Reaction profile diagrams show the energy change during a reaction; the peak represents the transition state. Catalysts lower the activation energy by providing an alternative reaction pathway.
活化能是反应发生所需的最低能量。反应进程图表示反应过程中的能量变化；顶峰代表过渡态。催化剂通过提供另一条反应路径来降低活化能。
ΔH = Σ(bond energies of reactants) – Σ(bond energies of products)
ΔH = Σ(反应物键能) – Σ(生成物键能)
8. Rates of Reaction | 反应速率
The rate of a reaction can be measured by the change in mass, volume of gas produced, or colour change per unit time. Factors affecting rate: concentration of reactants (in solution), pressure of gases, surface area of solids, temperature, and the presence of a catalyst. Increasing temperature increases the rate because particles have more kinetic energy and a greater proportion of collisions exceed the activation energy.
反应速率可通过单位时间内质量变化、气体体积变化或颜色变化来衡量。影响速率的因素：反应物浓度（溶液）、气体压强、固体表面积、温度以及催化剂。升高温度增加速率，因为粒子动能增大，超过活化能的碰撞比例增加。
y) and correct orientation. A catalyst increases the rate without being used up by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy. Enzymes are biological catalysts.
碰撞理论：反应发生需要粒子具有足够的能量（≥ 活化能）并以合适的取向碰撞。催化剂通过提供活化能较低的替代路径来增加速率，自身不被消耗。酶是生物催化剂。
9. Organic Chemistry – Hydrocarbons | 有机化学 – 烃
e (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈), butane (C₄H₁₀). They are used as fuels. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one C=C double bond; general formula CₙH₂ₙ. Ethene (C₂H₄) and propene (C₃H₆) are examples. Alkenes decolourise bromine water, while alkanes do not – this is a test for unsaturation.
烃只含碳和氢。烷烃是饱和烃，通式为 CₙH₂ₙ₊₂。前四种烷烃：甲烷 (CH₄)、乙烷 (C₂H₆)、丙烷 (C₃H₈)、丁烷 (C₄H₁₀)。它们用作燃料。烯烃是不饱和烃，至少含有一个 C=C 双键，通式为 CₙH₂ₙ。例如乙烯 (C₂H₄) 和丙烯 (C₃H₆)。烯烃能使溴水褪色，而烷烃不能——这是检验不饱和性的方法。
Complete combustion of hydrocarbons produces CO₂ and H₂O. Incomplete combustion can produce CO and C (soot). Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements. The first structural isomer occurs at C₄H₁₀ (butane and methylpropane).
烃的完全燃烧生成 CO₂ 和 H₂O。不完全燃烧可能产生 CO 和碳（黑烟）。同分异构体是具有相同分子式但不同结构排列的化合物。第一个结构异构体出现在 C₄H₁₀（丁烷和甲基丙烷）。
10. Quantitative Chemistry & Titrations | 定量化学与滴定
. An indicator (e.g., phenolphthalein) is used to detect the endpoint. The titre volume is recorded, and concordant results are used to calculate concentration using the equation c₁V₁/n₁ = c₂V₂/n₂, where n is the stoichiometric coefficient.
滴定是通过与已知浓度的标准溶液反应来测定未知溶液浓度的技术。指示剂（如酚酞）用于检测终点。记录滴定体积，使用一致的结果进行计算，公式为 c₁V₁/n₁ = c₂V₂/n₂，其中 n 为化学计量系数。
/mol). n = V (dm³) / 24, or n = V (cm³) / 24,000. This is valid at 20 °C and 1 atmosphere.
在常温常压 (rtp) 下将气体体积转换为摩尔：摩尔体积 = 24 dm³/mol（或 24,000 cm³/mol）。n = V(dm³) / 24，或 n = V(cm³) / 24,000。适用于 20 °C、1 atm。
11. Redox & Reactivity Series | 氧化还原与金属活动性顺序
Reduction involves gain of electrons; oxidation involves loss of electrons. A redox reaction is one where both occur. The reactivity series orders metals by their tendency to lose electrons. A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compound. The mnemonic: Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium, (Carbon), Zinc, Iron, (Hydrogen), Copper, Silver, Gold. Carbon can reduce zinc oxide and iron oxide below it in the series.
还原是得到电子；氧化是失去电子。氧化还原反应是两者同时发生的过程。金属活动性顺序按金属失去电子的倾向排列。较活泼的金属能将较不活泼的金属从其化合物中置换出来。顺序：钾、钠、钙、镁、铝、(碳)、锌、铁、(氢)、铜、银、金。碳能还原位于它下方的金属氧化物，如氧化锌和氧化铁。
acted in a blast furnace: Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂. Aluminium extraction uses electrolysis of molten Al₂O₃ dissolved in cryolite to lower the melting point.
金属的提取：位于碳以上的金属通过电解提取；位于碳以下的金属可用碳还原。铁通过高炉冶炼：Fe₂O₃ + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO₂。铝则通过电解溶解在冰晶石中的熔融 Al₂O₃ 提取，以降低熔点。
12. The Atmosphere & Environmental Chemistry | 大气与环境化学
The Earth's early atmosphere was mainly carbon dioxide with little oxygen. Photosynthesis by plants and dissolution of CO₂ in oceans reduced CO₂ levels. Today's atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.04% CO₂, and noble gases. Combustion of fossil fuels releases CO₂, SO₂ (sulfur dioxide), and NOₓ, leading to acid rain, global warming, and health issues. Catalytic converters in cars reduce emissions of CO and NOₓ.
地球早期大气主要成分为二氧化碳，氧气极少。植物的光合作用和二氧化碳在海洋中的溶解降低了 CO₂ 含量。如今大气约含 78% 氮气、21% 氧气、0.04% 二氧化碳以及稀有气体。化石燃料的燃烧释放 CO₂、SO₂ 和 NOₓ，导致酸雨、全球变暖和健康问题。汽车中的催化转化器可减少 CO 和 NOₓ 的排放。
Greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane, water vapour) trap heat in the atmosphere, causing global warming. Reduction of carbon footprint can be achieved through renewable energy, improved efficiency, and reforestation.
温室气体（CO₂、甲烷、水蒸气）会在大气中截留热量，导致全球变暖。可通过使用可再生能源、提高能效和植树造林来减少碳足迹。
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