📚 Year 10 CAIE Philosophy: Vocabulary & Terminology Memory Guide | 剑桥IGCSE哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is the first critical step toward success in the CAIE IGCSE Philosophy examination. Unlike many other subjects where you can rely on general descriptions, Philosophy demands precision in the use of terms. Each concept carries a specific weight and history, and examiners look for accurate, confident usage of the technical lexicon. This guide systematically organises the core terminology you will encounter in the Year 10 syllabus, grouping related terms together to make memorisation more logical and connected rather than a mere list of isolated definitions.
掌握哲学术语是CAIE IGCSE哲学考试成功的关键第一步。与许多可以依赖笼统描述的其他学科不同，哲学要求术语使用必须精确。每个概念都有其特定的分量和历史，考官期望看到你对专业词汇准确而自信的运用。本指南系统整理了你在十年级课程大纲中会遇到的核心术语，将相关词汇分组归类，使记忆更具逻辑性和关联性，而非简单孤立定义的罗列。
1. Core Logical and Argument Terms | 核心逻辑与论证术语
Before diving into specific philosophical content, you must be fluent in the language of reasoning itself. Philosophy is fundamentally about constructing and evaluating arguments, not in the confrontational sense, but as structured sets of statements where reasons (premises) are offered to support a conclusion. The CAIE examination frequently tests your ability to identify these components in passages and to assess whether arguments are valid, sound, or fallacious. Treat these terms as your foundational toolkit.
在深入具体的哲学内容之前，你必须熟练掌握推理本身的语言。哲学本质上关乎构建和评估论证——这不是指对抗性的争论，而是以结构化的陈述集合，用理由（前提）来支持结论。CAIE考试经常考查你从段落中识别这些组成部分的能力，以及判断论证是否有效、可靠或存在谬误。将这些术语视为你的基础工具箱。
Premise refers to a statement that provides a reason or evidence intended to support the conclusion of an argument. For example, in the argument 'All humans are mortal; Socrates is a human; therefore, Socrates is mortal,' the first two statements are premises. Think of premises as the building blocks upon which the conclusion rests.
前提指的是为支持论证结论而提供理由或证据的陈述。例如，在论证"所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；因此苏格拉底会死"中，前两个陈述就是前提。将前提视为结论赖以建立的基本构件。
Conclusion is the statement that the argument is trying to establish or prove, drawn from the premises. In the above syllogism, 'Socrates is mortal' is the conclusion. A useful habit when reading any philosophical text is to ask yourself: what is the author trying to convince me of? That is the conclusion. Then ask: what reasons do they give? Those are the premises.
结论是论证试图确立或证明的陈述，由前提推导而出。在上述三段论中，"苏格拉底会死"就是结论。阅读任何哲学文本时，一个有用的习惯是问自己：作者试图让我相信什么？那就是结论。然后再问：他们给出了什么理由？那些就是前提。
Validity concerns the logical structure of an argument. An argument is valid if, assuming all its premises are true, the conclusion must necessarily be true. Validity is purely about the form of reasoning and says nothing about whether the premises are actually true in reality. A valid argument can have entirely false premises. For instance: 'All cats are dogs; all dogs are fish; therefore all cats are fish' is a perfectly valid argument in terms of its logical structure, even though every statement in it is false.
有效性关涉的是论证的逻辑结构。如果假设所有前提为真，结论必然为真，那么这个论证就是有效的。有效性纯粹关乎推理的形式，完全不涉及前提在现实中是否真的成立。一个有效的论证可能有完全错误的前提。例如："所有的猫都是狗；所有的狗都是鱼；因此所有的猫都是鱼。"从逻辑结构上看，这是一个完全有效的论证，尽管其中的每个陈述都是错误的。
Soundness is a stricter criterion than validity. An argument is sound if and only if it is valid AND all of its premises are actually true. This is the gold standard in philosophy: you want your arguments to be sound because a sound argument guarantees a true conclusion. When evaluating an argument in an exam, always check both the structure (is it valid?) and the truth of the premises (is it sound?).
可靠性是比有效性更严格的标准。一个论证是可靠的，当且仅当它既有效，且所有前提实际上都为真。这是哲学中的黄金标准：你希望你的论证是可靠的，因为一个可靠的论证保证了真实的结论。在考试中评价论证时，永远要检查其结构（是否有效？）和前提的真实性（是否可靠？）。
2. Epistemology: The Theory of Knowledge | 认识论：知识论
Epistemology is one of the most heavily examined branches of philosophy at IGCSE level. It asks fundamental questions: What does it mean to know something? How is knowledge different from mere belief or opinion? Can we trust our senses? This section covers the essential vocabulary you will need for discussions about the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge. Pay particular attention to the tripartite definition of knowledge, as it is a cornerstone of the syllabus.
认识论是IGCSE阶段考查最为密集的哲学分支之一。它提出根本性的问题：知道某事意味着什么？知识如何区别于纯粹的信念或观点？我们能够信任自己的感官吗？本节涵盖了讨论知识的本质、来源和限度时所需的基本词汇。请特别关注知识的三重定义，因为它是课程大纲的基石。
Knowledge in the traditional philosophical sense is classically defined as justified true belief (JTB). This means that for a person S to know a proposition P, three conditions must be met: (1) P must be true; (2) S must believe that P; and (3) S must have adequate justification for believing P. If any of these three elements is missing, we do not have knowledge. A lucky guess that happens to be true is not knowledge because it lacks justification. A justified belief that is false is not knowledge because it fails the truth condition.
在传统哲学意义上，知识被经典地定义为得到辩护的真信念（JTB）。这意味着，对于一个人S来说，要知道命题P，必须满足三个条件：(1) P必须为真；(2) S必须相信P；(3) S必须有充分的理由来辩护其对P的信念。如果这三个要素中缺少任何一个，我们就不拥有知识。一个碰巧正确的幸运猜测不是知识，因为它缺乏辩护。一个有辩护但错误的信念也不是知识，因为它不满足真理条件。
Belief is a mental attitude of acceptance or assent toward a proposition. You can believe something without it being true, and you can believe something without having good reasons. Belief is the psychological component of knowledge. In philosophy, belief is treated as a propositional attitude, meaning it is a stance we take toward a statement that can be true or false.
信念是对某个命题持有接受或赞同的心理态度。你可能相信某事而它并非为真，你也可能相信某事却没有充分的理由。信念是知识的心理组成部分。在哲学中，信念被视作一种命题态度，即我们对一个可真可假的陈述所采取的立场。
Justification refers to the reasons, evidence, or grounds that make a belief rational or warranted. The nature of justification is a major debate within epistemology. Internalists argue that justification must be accessible to the believer's conscious mind, while externalists hold that justification can depend on factors outside the believer's awareness, such as the reliability of the cognitive process that produced the belief. For IGCSE, focus on understanding that justification is what separates knowledge from mere true belief.
辩护指的是使一个信念成为理性或有根据的理由、证据或基础。辩护的本质是认识论内部的一个重要争论。内在主义者主张，辩护必须是信念者意识可以通达的，而外在主义者则认为辩护可以依赖于信念者意识之外的因素，例如产生该信念的认知过程的可靠性。对于IGCSE而言，重点是理解辩护是区分知识与单纯真信念的关键。
Scepticism (or skepticism) is the philosophical position that questions the possibility of knowledge. Global scepticism claims that we can know nothing at all, or at least nothing about the external world. Local scepticism targets specific domains, such as scepticism about other minds or about the past. Descartes' method of doubt is a famous example of using sceptical arguments as a tool to find indubitable foundations for knowledge. In exam essays, you should be able to articulate sceptical challenges and evaluate responses to them.
怀疑论是对知识的可能性提出质疑的哲学立场。全面怀疑论声称我们根本无法知道任何事，或者至少无法知道关于外部世界的任何事。局部怀疑论则针对特定领域，例如关于他心或关于过去的怀疑论。笛卡尔的怀疑方法是利用怀疑论证作为工具，为知识寻找不可怀疑的基础的一个著名例证。在考试论文中，你应该能够清晰阐述怀疑论的挑战并评价对其的回应。
3. Metaphysics: The Nature of Reality | 形而上学：实在的本质
Metaphysics investigates the most fundamental questions about what exists and the nature of reality itself. Is reality purely physical, or are there non-physical entities like minds or abstract objects? What does it mean for something to exist? These questions can feel abstract, but they underpin many other philosophical debates, including those in the philosophy of religion and the philosophy of mind. For CAIE, concentrate on the mind-body problem and the concept of personal identity.
形而上学探究关于什么东西存在以及实在本身本质的最根本问题。实在是纯粹物理的，还是存在像心灵或抽象对象这样的非物理实体？某物存在意味着什么？这些问题可能感觉抽象，但它们支撑着许多其他哲学辩论，包括宗教哲学和心灵哲学中的争论。对于CAIE考试，专注于心身问题和个人同一性的概念。
Dualism is the view that the mind and the body are two fundamentally different kinds of substances or properties. Substance dualism, famously defended by René Descartes, holds that the mind is a non-physical thinking substance distinct from the physical body. Property dualism maintains that there is only one kind of substance (physical), but mental properties are non-physical and cannot be reduced to physical properties. The main challenge for dualism is the interaction problem: if mind and body are so different, how can they causally interact?
二元论主张心灵和身体是两种根本不同的实体或属性。由勒内·笛卡尔著名捍卫的实体二元论认为，心灵是一种非物理的思维实体，与物理身体截然不同。属性二元论则主张只有一种实体（物理的），但心理属性是非物理的，不能被还原为物理属性。二元论面临的主要挑战是交互问题：如果心灵和身体如此不同，它们如何能够因果性地相互作用？
Materialism (or physicalism) is the opposing view that everything that exists is ultimately physical or material, including the mind and mental states. According to materialism, consciousness and thoughts are nothing over and above brain processes. This position has the advantage of aligning with modern neuroscience and avoiding the interaction problem, but critics argue that it fails to capture the subjective, qualitative feel of conscious experience, what philosophers call qualia.
唯物主义（或物理主义）是个对立的观点，主张一切存在的东西最终都是物理的或物质的，包括心灵和心理状态。根据唯物主义，意识和思想无非就是大脑过程。这一立场具有与现代神经科学一致且避免交互问题的优势，但批评者认为它未能捕捉到意识经验的主观、质性感受，也就是哲学家所称的感受质。
Personal Identity concerns the question of what makes a person the same person over time. What connects your five-year-old self to your current self? John Locke proposed the memory theory: personal identity consists in psychological continuity, specifically the continuity of memory. Thomas Reid and others have challenged this with puzzles such as the brave officer paradox. An alternative is the biological or bodily continuity theory, which locates identity in the continuity of the living human organism.
个人同一性关涉的是什么使得一个人在时间推移中保持为同一个人。什么把你五岁的自己和现在的自己联系在一起？约翰·洛克提出了记忆理论：个人同一性在于心理连续性，特别是记忆的连续性。托马斯·里德和其他人用诸如勇敢军官悖论等难题挑战了这一观点。另一种选择是生物学或身体连续性理论，它将同一性定位于活人有机体的连续性之中。
4. Ethics: Moral Philosophy | 伦理学：道德哲学
Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with questions of right and wrong, good and bad, and how we ought to live. The CAIE syllabus introduces you to major normative ethical theories, each offering a different framework for moral decision-making. You will need to know how each theory works, what its core principles are, and how to apply it to ethical dilemmas. Memorising the terminology is essential because these theories use precise, technical language that examiners expect to see.
伦理学是关心对与错、好与坏以及我们应当如何生活等问题的哲学分支。CAIE课程大纲向你介绍主要的规范伦理学理论，每种理论都提供了不同的道德决策框架。你需要知道每种理论如何运作，其核心原则是什么，以及如何将其应用于伦理困境。记住术语至关重要，因为这些理论使用精确的专业语言，正是考官期望看到的。
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that judges the morality of an action solely by its outcomes or consequences. The right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Jeremy Bentham formulated this with his principle of utility and proposed a hedonic calculus to measure pleasure and pain across seven dimensions: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. John Stuart Mill refined the theory by distinguishing between higher pleasures (intellectual and moral) and lower pleasures (bodily), arguing that 'it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.'
功利主义是一种后果论伦理理论，它完全根据行为的结果或后果来判断其道德性。正确的行为是为最大多数人产生最大幸福的行为。杰里米·边沁用他的功利原则阐述了这一理论，并提出了一种幸福计算法，从七个维度衡量快乐和痛苦：强度、持续时间、确定性、邻近性、衍生性、纯度和范围。约翰·斯图尔特·密尔改进了这一理论，区分了高级快乐（智识和道德的）和低级快乐（身体的），主张"做一个不满足的人胜过做一只满足的猪"。
Deontology is an ethical theory that judges the morality of an action based on its adherence to rules, duties, or obligations, regardless of the consequences. The most influential deontologist is Immanuel Kant, whose categorical imperative is the supreme principle of morality. Kant gives several formulations: the Formula of Universal Law ('Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law') and the Formula of Humanity ('Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means'). Deontology prohibits actions like lying or breaking promises even if doing so would bring about good consequences.
道义论是一种根据行为是否遵守规则、义务或责任来判断其道德性的伦理理论，不考虑后果。最有影响力的道义论者是伊曼努尔·康德，他的绝对命令是道德的最高原则。康德给出了几种表述：普遍法则公式（"只按照你同时能够意愿它成为普遍法则的那个准则去行动"）和人性公式（"你要如此行动，以至于你总是将人性——无论是你自己人格中的人性还是他人人格中的人性——同时作为目的，而绝不仅仅作为手段来对待"）。道义论禁止诸如撒谎或违背诺言等行为，即使这样做会带来好的后果。
Virtue Ethics, rooted in the work of Aristotle, shifts the focus from actions to the agent. Rather than asking 'What should I do?', virtue ethics asks 'What kind of person should I be?' The central concept is eudaimonia (often translated as flourishing or the good life), which is achieved by cultivating virtues. A virtue is a stable character trait that enables a person to act well, lying as a mean between two vices of excess and deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between rashness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency). Practical wisdom (phronesis) is the intellectual virtue that enables a person to discern the right mean in specific situations.
德性伦理学根源于亚里士多德的著作，将焦点从行为转移到行为者。德性伦理学不追问"我应当做什么？"，而是问"我应当成为什么样的人？"。其核心概念是eudaimonia（常译为繁荣或良善生活），通过培养德性来实现。德性是一种稳定的品格特征，使一个人能够行动得当，位于过度和不足两种恶之间的中道。例如，勇敢是鲁莽（过度）和怯懦（不足）之间的中道。实践智慧（phronesis）是使人能够在具体情境中辨识正确中道的理智德性。
5. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
The philosophy of religion examines the rational foundations of religious belief. It is not the same as theology, which starts from within a particular faith tradition. Rather, philosophy of religion asks whether belief in God can be rationally justified, what the divine attributes mean, and whether the existence of evil is compatible with the existence of a perfectly good, all-powerful God. You will encounter arguments for and against God's existence and need to master the technical terms that frame these debates.
宗教哲学审视宗教信仰的理性基础。它不同于神学，神学是从特定信仰传统内部出发的。相反，宗教哲学询问信仰上帝是否能够得到理性辩护，神的属性意味着什么，以及恶的存在是否与一个全善全能上帝的存在相容。你将遇到支持和反对上帝存在的各种论证，需要掌握框定这些辩论的专业术语。
Theism is the belief in the existence of a God or gods, typically understood as a personal, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent being who created and sustains the universe. Atheism is the absence of belief in any deities. Agnosticism is the position that the existence or non-existence of God is unknown or unknowable; it is a claim about the limits of human knowledge rather than a declaration of belief or disbelief. These three positions form the basic spectrum of religious belief.
有神论是相信上帝或诸神存在的信仰，上帝通常被理解为一个具有位格、全能、全知和全善的存在者，创造并维系着宇宙。无神论是不相信任何神灵。不可知论是主张上帝存在或不存在不可知或无法知道的立场；这是关于人类知识限度的主张，而非对相信或不相信的声明。这三个立场构成了宗教信仰的基本谱系。
The Design Argument (or teleological argument) infers the existence of an intelligent designer from the apparent order, purpose, and complexity in the natural world. William Paley's watchmaker analogy is the classic formulation: if you found a watch on a heath, its intricate complexity would lead you to infer a watchmaker; similarly, the vastly greater complexity of living organisms should lead us to infer a divine designer. David Hume's criticisms in Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion remain influential, including the argument that the universe might be more like a vegetable than a machine, and that even if a designer exists, the argument gives us no reason to identify it with the God of classical theism.
设计论证（或目的论论证）从自然世界中表面的秩序、目的和复杂性推论出智能设计者的存在。威廉·佩利的制表匠类比是经典的表述：如果你在荒野中发现一只表，其精密的复杂性会让你推断有一位制表匠；同理，生物体大得多的复杂性应当引导我们推断有一位神圣的设计者。大卫·休谟在《自然宗教对话录》中的批评至今影响深远，其中包括宇宙可能更像蔬菜而非机器的论证，以及即便存在一位设计者，论证也并未给我们理由将其等同于古典有神论的上帝。
The Cosmological Argument seeks to prove God's existence from the mere fact that the universe exists rather than nothing. Thomas Aquinas presented five ways, the first three of which are cosmological: the argument from motion (an unmoved mover), the argument from causation (a first cause), and the argument from contingency (a necessary being). The argument from contingency is particularly powerful: contingent beings depend on something else for their existence, and if everything were contingent, ultimately nothing would exist; therefore, there must be a necessary being (God) that exists by its own nature and grounds the existence of all contingent things.
宇宙论论证试图从宇宙存在而非虚无这个单纯事实出发证明上帝存在。托马斯·阿奎那提出了五种方法，其中前三种是宇宙论的：从运动出发的论证（一个不动的推动者）、从因果出发的论证（一个第一因）、以及从偶然性出发的论证（一个必然存在者）。偶然性论证尤为有力：偶然存在者依赖他物而存在，如果一切都是偶然的，最终将无一物存在；因此必须有一个必然存在者（上帝），其凭自身本性而存在，并奠定一切偶然事物存在的基础。
The Problem of Evil is arguably the most powerful argument against the existence of the God of classical theism. The logical problem of evil, articulated by Epicurus and later by J. L. Mackie, asserts that the existence of evil is logically incompatible with the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good God. If God is all-powerful, He could prevent evil; if He is all-good, He would want to; yet evil exists. The evidential problem of evil, associated with William Rowe, grants that evil and God's existence are logically possible but argues that the amount and distribution of gratuitous suffering in the world makes God's existence highly improbable.
恶的问题可以说是反对古典有神论上帝存在的最有力论证。由伊壁鸠鲁以及后来由J. L. 麦基阐述的逻辑恶的问题断言，恶的存在与全能、全知、全善的上帝存在在逻辑上不相容。如果上帝全能，祂能够阻止恶；如果祂全善，祂会想要阻止；然而恶存在。由威廉·罗维关联的证据恶的问题则承认恶与上帝存在在逻辑上是可能的，但论证世界上无缘无故痛苦的数量和分布使得上帝的存在高度不可能。
6. Philosophy of Mind | 心灵哲学
The philosophy of mind explores the nature of mental phenomena such as consciousness, thought, emotion, and intentionality. At the heart of this subfield is the mind-body problem: how does the mind relate to the physical brain and body? Are they identical, distinct, or related in some other way? For CAIE, you should understand the main positions and be able to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. The vocabulary here is technical but essential for any serious discussion of consciousness.
心灵哲学探究意识、思想、情感和意向性等心理现象的本质。这个子领域的核心是心身问题：心灵与物理大脑和身体如何关联？它们是同一的、分离的，还是以某种其他方式关联？对于CAIE考试，你应当理解主要立场并能评价它们的优势和弱点。此处的词汇是专业性的，但对于任何关于意识的严肃讨论都是不可或缺的。
Qualia (singular: quale) are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience. The redness of red, the painfulness of pain, the taste of chocolate; these are all examples of qualia. They are what it is like to have a particular experience from the first-person perspective. Qualia pose a significant challenge to materialist theories of mind because they seem to be irreducibly subjective and cannot be fully captured by objective, third-person scientific descriptions. Frank Jackson's knowledge argument features Mary the neuroscientist, who knows all the physical facts about colour vision but learns something new when she sees red for the first time, suggesting that physical facts do not exhaust all facts.
感受质（单数：quale）是意识经验中主观的、质性的方面。红色的红、疼痛的痛、巧克力的味道；这些都是感受质的例子。它们是从第一人称视角拥有特定经验是什么样的那种感受。感受质对心灵的物质主义理论构成重大挑战，因为它们似乎不可还原地是主观的，无法被客观的第三人称科学描述完全捕捉。弗兰克·杰克逊的知识论证中有一位神经科学家玛丽，她知道关于色觉的所有物理事实，但在第一次看到红色时学到了新东西，这表明物理事实并未穷尽所有事实。
Intentionality is the property of mental states by which they are about, directed toward, or represent objects and states of affairs in the world. When you think about the Eiffel Tower, your thought is about the Eiffel Tower. When you believe that Paris is the capital of France, your belief is directed toward a state of affairs. Franz Brentano argued that intentionality is the mark of the mental; all and only mental phenomena exhibit intentionality. Explaining how purely physical brain states can possess this aboutness is a central puzzle in the philosophy of mind.
意向性是心理状态的一种属性，凭借此属性它们关涉、指向或表征世界中的对象和事态。当你想到埃菲尔铁塔时，你的思想是关于埃菲尔铁塔的。当你相信巴黎是法国的首都时，你的信念指向某个事态。弗朗茨·布伦塔诺主张意向性是心理现象的标记；所有且只有心理现象展示意向性。解释纯粹物理的大脑状态如何能够拥有这种关涉性是心灵哲学中的核心难题。
7. Political Philosophy | 政治哲学
Political philosophy examines fundamental questions about the state, government, justice, liberty, and the rights of individuals. What makes a government legitimate? What do we owe to our fellow citizens? Under what conditions is civil disobedience justified? For the CAIE syllabus, you should focus on understanding key concepts such as the social contract, the nature of justice, and different theories of political obligation. The language of political philosophy is essential for analysing and constructing arguments about how society should be organised.
政治哲学审视关于国家、政府、正义、自由和个人权利的根本问题。是什么使一个政府具有合法性？我们对同胞公民负有什么义务？在什么条件下公民不服从是正当的？对于CAIE课程大纲，你应专注于理解社会契约、正义的本质以及不同的政治义务理论等关键概念。政治哲学的语言对于分析和构建关于社会应如何组织的论证至关重要。
The Social Contract is a theoretical agreement between individuals and the state that establishes political authority and obligation. Thomas Hobbes argued that in the state of nature (a hypothetical condition without government), life would be 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,' so rational individuals contract to surrender their natural rights to an absolute sovereign in exchange for security. John Locke's more optimistic version holds that the state of nature already possesses moral laws, and the social contract establishes a government limited by the consent of the governed, tasked primarily with protecting natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasised the general will as the collective interest of the community that each citizen helps to shape.
社会契约是个人与国家之间的一种理论性协议，确立了政治权威和义务。托马斯·霍布斯主张，在自然状态（没有政府的假设性状况）中，生命将是"孤独、贫穷、污秽、野蛮而短暂的"，因此理性个体签订契约，将其自然权利让渡给一个绝对主权者，以换取安全。约翰·洛克的更为乐观的版本认为，自然状态已经拥有道德法则，社会契约建立了一个受被统治者同意所限制的政府，其主要任务是保护生命、自由和财产的自然权利。让-雅克·卢梭强调公意是每个公民共同参与塑造的集体利益。
Justice in political philosophy concerns the fair distribution of benefits and burdens in society. Distributive justice asks how goods such as wealth, opportunities, and rights should be allocated. John Rawls' theory of justice as fairness proposes two principles: first, each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for all; second, social and economic inequalities must satisfy two conditions: they must be attached to positions and offices open to all under fair equality of opportunity, and they must be to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society (the difference principle).
在政治哲学中，正义关乎社会中利益和负担的公平分配。分配正义追问财富、机会和权利等善品应如何分配。约翰·罗尔斯的作为公平的正义理论提出了两个原则：第一，每个人对最广泛的基本自由拥有平等的权利，只要与他人的类似自由相容；第二，社会和经济的不平等必须满足两个条件：它们必须附着于在公平机会平等条件下向所有人开放的职位和岗位，并且它们必须最有利于社会中最不富裕的成员（差别原则）。
8. Key Philosophers and Their Ideas | 关键哲学家及其思想
The CAIE syllabus references a range of philosophers whose ideas you should be able to name, explain, and critically evaluate. Knowing the thinkers associated with each position helps you write with authority and precision in the examination. Avoid treating philosophers merely as names attached to theories; aim to understand the problems they were responding to and the historical context of their ideas. This section provides a streamlined reference for the most frequently examined figures.
CAIE课程大纲涉及一系列哲学家，你应当能够说出他们的名字，解释并批判性地评价其思想。了解与每种立场相关的思想家有助于你在考试中权威而精确地写作。避免仅仅将哲学家视为附属于理论的名称；要致力于理解他们当时回应的问题以及其思想的历史背景。本节为最常见的考查人物提供简明的参考。
| Philosopher | 哲学家 | Key Idea | 核心思想 | Work | 著作 |
|---|---|---|
| Plato | 柏拉图 | Theory of Forms; the allegory of the cave | 理型论；洞穴寓言 | The Republic |
| Aristotle | 亚里士多德 | Virtue ethics; the doctrine of the mean; eudaimonia | 德性伦理学；中道学说；eudaimonia | Nicomachean Ethics |
| René Descartes | 笛卡尔 | Method of doubt; cogito ergo sum; substance dualism | 怀疑方法；我思故我在；实体二元论 | Meditations on First Philosophy |
| John Locke | 约翰·洛克 | Memory theory of personal identity; empiricism; social contract | 个人同一性的记忆理论；经验论；社会契约 | An Essay Concerning Human Understanding; Two Treatises of Government |
| Immanuel Kant | 康德 | Categorical imperative; deontology; transcendental idealism | 绝对命令；道义论；先验唯心论 | Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals |
| Jeremy Bentham | 边沁 | Classical utilitarianism; hedonic calculus | 古典功利主义；幸福计算法 | An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation |
| John Stuart Mill | 密尔 | Higher and lower pleasures; harm principle | 高级与低级快乐；伤害原则 | Utilitarianism; On Liberty |
When revising these philosophers, do not simply memorise the table. Write short paragraphs explaining each philosopher's position in your own words, then practise connecting them to the broader themes. For example, when you study Descartes, link him to epistemology (method of doubt, foundationalism), metaphysics (substance dualism), and the philosophy of religion (his ontological argument, though not always in IGCSE syllabi). Building these connections helps your understanding cohere and makes retrieval much easier under exam conditions.
在复习这些哲学家时，不要仅仅记忆表格。用你自己的话写简短段落解释每位哲学家的立场，然后练习将它们与更广泛的主题联系起来。例如，当你学习笛卡尔时，将他与认识论（怀疑方法、基础主义）、形而上学（实体二元论）和宗教哲学（他的本体论论证，尽管不总在IGCSE大纲中）联系起来。建立这些联系有助于你的理解连贯起来，并使在考试条件下的提取变得容易得多。
9. Common Fallacies to Recognise | 常见谬误识别
A fallacy is an error in reasoning that weakens an argument. The CAIE examination often includes passages containing fallacies and asks you to identify and explain them. Being able to name a fallacy and articulate why it is erroneous demonstrates analytical skill that examiners reward. This section covers the most common informal fallacies you are likely to encounter in both source materials and your own writing. Guard against these in your essays; soundness is impossible where fallacies lurk.
谬误是削弱论证的推理错误。CAIE考试常包含含有谬误的段落，要求你识别并解释它们。能够说出一个谬误的名称并阐明其为何错误，体现了考官所奖励的分析技能。本节涵盖你很可能在原始材料和自己的写作中遇到的最常见的非形式谬误。在你的论文中要防范这些；谬误所在之处，可靠性无从谈起。
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