📚 Year 11 Eduqas Biology: Quick Guide to Key Terminology | Year 11 Eduqas 生物学：关键术语速记指南
Mastering biology begins with mastering its language. For Year 11 students following the Eduqas specification, a solid grasp of key terminology not only helps you understand concepts but also earns you valuable marks in exams. This guide breaks down essential terms into themed sections, pairing each with clear explanations and memory tricks to make revision efficient and effective.
掌握生物学从掌握其语言开始。对于遵循 Eduqas 考试大纲的 Year 11 学生来说，牢固掌握关键术语不仅能帮助理解概念，还能在考试中赢得宝贵的分数。本指南将核心术语按主题划分，每个术语都配有清晰的解释和记忆技巧，使复习既高效又有效。
1. Cell Structure and Organelles | 细胞结构与细胞器
The cell is the basic unit of life. All living organisms are composed of cells, which can be prokaryotic (without a nucleus, e.g. bacteria) or eukaryotic (with a nucleus, e.g. animal and plant cells). Key organelles include the nucleus, which contains genetic material; mitochondria, where aerobic respiration occurs; ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis; and chloroplasts, found only in plant cells, where photosynthesis takes place. Remember the phrase 'Most Plants Carry Radiant Energy' for Mitochondria, Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Ribosomes, and (permanent) vacuole in plant cells – but adapt it: 'Mr P. Plant Cells Really Enjoy Chloroplasts' might help for plant-specific features.
细胞是生命的基本单位。所有生物体都由细胞组成，细胞可以是原核细胞（无细胞核，如细菌）或真核细胞（有细胞核，如动植物细胞）。关键细胞器包括：细胞核，含有遗传物质；线粒体，有氧呼吸的场所；核糖体，蛋白质合成的场所；以及叶绿体，仅存在于植物细胞中，是光合作用的发生地。记忆植物细胞特有结构时，可用一句话：“植核线叶绿，液泡细胞壁”，帮助区分动植物细胞。
The cell membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell; it is selectively permeable. The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance where many chemical reactions occur. In bacterial cells, the DNA floats freely as a circular chromosome, and there may be small rings of DNA called plasmids. Remember: Prokaryotes have no 'proper' nucleus – Pro- rhymes with 'no nucleus'.
细胞膜控制物质的进出，具有选择透过性。细胞质是胶状物质，许多化学反应在此发生。在细菌细胞中，DNA 以环状染色体的形式自由漂浮，可能还有称为质粒的小型 DNA 环。记忆：原核生物没有真正的细胞核——‘原核’的‘原’可联想为‘原始’，无核膜。
2. Transport Across Cell Membranes | 跨膜运输
Substances move across membranes by diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to low concentration, down the concentration gradient; it is passive and does not require energy. Examples are oxygen entering blood from alveoli and carbon dioxide entering leaves through stomata. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion: the movement of water molecules from a dilute (high water potential) region to a more concentrated (low water potential) region through a partially permeable membrane. Active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient, from low to high concentration, using energy from respiration. Mineral uptake by root hair cells is a classic example.
物质通过扩散、渗透和主动运输跨越细胞膜。扩散是粒子从高浓度区域到低浓度区域的净移动，顺浓度梯度进行；属于被动运输，不需要能量。例如氧气从肺泡进入血液，二氧化碳通过气孔进入叶片。渗透是扩散的一种特殊形式：水分子通过半透膜从稀释（高水势）区域向更浓（低水势）区域移动。主动运输则逆浓度梯度，从低浓度到高浓度，需要呼吸作用提供的能量。根毛细胞吸收矿物质是主动运输的典型例子。
Remember the mnemonic 'OAT': Osmosis (water Only, Across a membrane, Towards a more concentrated solution). For active transport, think 'A' for Against and 'A' for ATP (energy). Key terms: turgid – a plant cell swollen with water; plasmolysed – a plant cell where the membrane pulls away from the wall due to water loss. These plant cell states are easily confused, so link 'turgid' with 'tough' and 'plasmolysed' with 'plasma pulling away'.
记忆技巧：渗透可记作‘水半透向浓处’。主动运输的‘主’可联想为‘主动逆流需耗能’。植物细胞在吸水后会变得坚挺（turgid），失水时细胞膜与细胞壁分离（plasmolysed，质壁分离）。将 turgid 中的‘tur’联想为‘挺’，plasmolysed 中的‘plasm’联想为 plasma（细胞质）从壁上剥离开。
3. Enzymes | 酶
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up. They are proteins with a specific active site that fits a particular substrate, like a lock and key. The rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction is affected by temperature and pH. As temperature increases, activity rises until an optimum is reached; beyond that, the enzyme denatures – its active site changes shape irreversibly. Each enzyme also has an optimum pH; pepsin works in the acidic stomach, while most others work around neutral pH. The substrate concentration also influences the rate: higher substrate concentration means more collisions until all active sites are occupied (saturation point).
酶是生物催化剂，能加速化学反应而自身不被消耗。它们是蛋白质，具有特定的活性部位，与特定底物相契合，如同锁和钥匙。酶促反应的速率受温度和 pH 值影响。随温度升高，活性增加直至最适温度；超过后酶会变性——其活性部位不可逆地改变形状。每种酶也有最适 pH；胃蛋白酶在酸性胃环境中工作，而大多数酶在中性附近工作。底物浓度也影响速率：底物浓度越高，碰撞频率越高，直至所有活性位点被占据（饱和）。
The lock and key model is now often replaced by the induced fit model, where the active site changes slightly as the substrate binds. However, for Eduqas GCSE, the lock and key model is typically sufficient. Remember: 'Enzyme-substrate complex' is the intermediate formed when the substrate binds. The term 'denatured' does not mean the enzyme is dead – enzymes are never alive – but that its shape is permanently changed.
锁钥模型现常被诱导契合模型取代，但在 GCSE 阶段，锁钥模型通常足够。当底物结合时形成酶-底物复合物。术语‘变性’并不意味着酶‘死亡’，因为酶从来不是活的，而是其形状永久改变。记忆酶的特性可记作‘特异高效需温和，酸碱高温易失活’。
4. Cell Division and Reproduction | 细胞分裂与生殖
There are two types of cell division in eukaryotic organisms: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells and is used for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. The process involves one round of division after DNA replication, ensuring each new cell has the full set of chromosomes. Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid gametes (sperm or egg cells) and is essential for sexual reproduction. It involves two divisions, halving the chromosome number. Fertilisation restores the diploid number when two haploid gametes fuse to form a zygote.
真核生物中有两种细胞分裂方式：有丝分裂（mitosis）和减数分裂（meiosis）。有丝分裂产生两个遗传上完全相同的二倍体子细胞，用于生长、修复和无性生殖。该过程在 DNA 复制后进行一轮分裂，确保每个新细胞拥有全套染色体。减数分裂产生四个遗传上不同的单倍体配子（精子或卵细胞），对有性生殖至关重要。它涉及两次分裂，使染色体数目减半。受精时两个单倍体配子融合形成合子，恢复二倍体数目。
Key terms: haploid (n) – one set of chromosomes; diploid (2n) – e haploid so that at fertilisation the chromosome number remains constant across generations. A useful mnemonic: 'Mitosis Makes My toes' (growth) and 'Meiosis Makes ME' (reproductive cells, genetic variation).
关键术语：单倍体（n）—— 一套染色体；二倍体（2n）—— 两套染色体。人类 n=23。配子是单倍体，这样受精后染色体数目才能在世代间保持恒定。记忆：有丝分裂用于‘生长修复’，减数分裂用于‘生殖变异’。想象 Mitosis 像复印机复制相同细胞，Meiosis 则像洗牌产生独特组合。
5. DNA and Genetics | DNA 与遗传学
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double helix polymer made of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine). The bases pair complementary: A with T, C with G. A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein. The entire set of genetic material in an organism is the genome. Understanding the genome helps in tracing human migration, identifying disease risks, and developing personalised medicine.
DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）是一种双螺旋结构的聚合物，由核苷酸组成。每个核苷酸包括一个脱氧核糖、一个磷酸基团和一个含氮碱基（腺嘌呤 A、胸腺嘧啶 T、胞嘧啶 C、鸟嘌呤 G）。碱基互补配对：A 与 T，C 与 G。基因是编码特定蛋白质的一段 DNA。生物体全部遗传物质的总和称为基因组。了解基因组有助于追溯人类迁徙、识别疾病风险及发展个性化医疗。
In protein synthesis, the DNA sequence of a gene is transcribed into mRNA (messenger RNA) in the nucleus; the mRNA then travels to a ribosome where translation occurs, linking amino acids into a polypeptide chain. Remember: 'T Cranscribes, T Ranslates' – Transcription in the nucleus, Translation on the Ribosome. The triplet code means three bases code for one amino acid.
在蛋白质合成中，基因的 DNA 序列在细胞核内转录为 mRNA（信使 RNA）；然后 mRNA 到达核糖体，在此进行翻译，将氨基酸连接成多肽链。记忆：转录在核内，翻译在核糖体。三联体密码意味着三个碱基决定一个氨基酸。
6. Inheritance and Variation | 遗传与变异
Alleles are different versions of the same gene. For example, the gene for eye colour may have a brown allele and a blue allele. If the two alleles of an individual are the same, the organism is homozygous for that trait; if different, it is heterozygous. The phenotype is the observable characteristic, while the genotype is the genetic makeup. A dominant allele (usually shown with a capital letter, e.g., B for brown eyes) masks the effect of a recessive allele (lower case, b for blue eyes). To express a recessive characteristic, an individual must have two recessive alleles (bb).
等位基因是同一基因的不同版本。例如，眼色基因可能有褐色等位基因和蓝色等位基因。如果个体的两个等位基因相同，则为纯合子；如果不同，则为杂合子。表现型是可观察的特征，而基因型是遗传组成。显性等位基因（通常用大写字母表示，如棕色眼 B）会掩盖隐性等位基因（小写 b，蓝色眼）的效应。要表达隐性性状，个体必须有两个隐性等位基因（bb）。
Monohybrid inheritance involves one gene; Punnett squares help predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes. Family pedigrees can show how genetic disorders are passed on. Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele, so both parents must carry it for a child to be affected. Polydactyly (extra fingers) is caused by a dominant allele. Variation can be genetic, environmental, or a combination of both. Continuous variation (e.g., height) shows a range; discontinuous variation (e.g., tongue rolling) is either/or.
单基因遗传涉及一对等位基因；庞纳特方格可预测子代基因型和表现型。家族谱系图可显示遗传病的传递方式。囊性纤维化由隐性等位基因引起，因此父母双方都携带才会使孩子患病。多指（趾）症由显性等位基因引起。变异可以是遗传的、环境的或两者共同作用。连续变异（如身高）呈现一个范围；非连续变异（如卷舌能力）则为是或否。
7. Ecology and Ecosystems | 生态学与生态系统
An ecosystem includes all the living organisms (biotic factors) interacting with each other and with the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment. Key terms: habitat – the place where an organism lives; population – all individuals of one species in a habitat; community – all populations living together; niche – the role of a species within its ecosystem. Producers (plants) make their own food via photosynthesis; consumers eat other organisms; decomposers break down dead material.
生态系统包括所有生物（生物因素）与环境中非生物（非生物因素）之间的相互作用。关键术语：栖息地——生物生活的地方；种群——同一栖息地中同种个体的总和；群落——所有生物种群共同生活在一起；生态位——物种在其生态系统中的作用。生产者（植物）通过光合作用制造食物；消费者捕食其他生物；分解者分解死亡物质。
esent the direction of energy transfer. Food webs are interconnected chains. Pyramids of biomass show the mass of living material at each trophic level, usually decreasing upwards. Energy is lost at each level due to respiration, movement, and undigested waste, so not all energy is passed on. The carbon cycle and water cycle are essential for recycling materials. Key processes: photosynthesis removes CO₂ from the atmosphere; respiration and combustion return it. Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from leaves, driving the upward movement of water in plants.
食物链显示捕食关系：草 → 兔 → 狐狸。箭头代表能量传递方向。食物网是相互连接的链。生物量金字塔显示每个营养级的生物质量，通常向上递减。能量在每一级因呼吸、运动、未消化物质而损失，因此并非所有能量都传递下去。碳循环和水循环对物质再循环至关重要。关键过程：光合作用从大气中移除二氧化碳；呼吸和燃烧将其返回。蒸腾作用是水蒸气从叶片散失，驱动了植物体内水分向上运输。
8. Homeostasis and Response | 稳态与反应
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment despite changes in external conditions. Key examples include regulation of body temperature (thermoregulation), blood glucose concentration, and water balance. The nervous system enables rapid responses. A reflex arc involves a receptor, sensory neurone, relay neurone in the central nervous system, motor neurone, and effector (muscle or gland). Hormonal control is slower but longer lasting, often involving negative feedback. For instance, insulin lowers blood glucose by converting glucose to glycogen in the liver, while glucagon raises it by converting glycogen back to glucose.
稳态是指尽管外部条件变化，内部环境仍维持恒定。重要例子包括体温调节、血糖浓度调节和水分平衡。神经系统能产生快速反应。反射弧包括：感受器、感觉神经元、中枢神经系统中的联络神经元、运动神经元和效应器（肌肉或腺体）。激素控制较慢但更持久，常涉及负反馈。例如，胰岛素通过促使肝脏将葡萄糖转化为糖原降低血糖，而胰高血糖素则通过糖原分解升高血糖。
Thermoregulation involves vasodilation (blood vessels widen to lose heat) and vasoconstriction (narrow to conserve heat), sweating, and shivering. The thermoregulatory centre is in the brain. In plants, tropisms are growth responses: phototropism (light) and gravitropism (gravity). Auxin is a hormone that stimulates cell elongation in shoots, causing them to grow towards light.
体温调节涉及血管舒张（散热）和血管收缩（保温）、出汗和发抖。体温调节中枢位于大脑。植物的向性是生长反应：向光性和向地性。生长素是一种激素，刺激嫩茎细胞伸长，使其向光生长。
9. Photosynthesis and Respiration | 光合作用与呼吸作用
xygen. The word equation: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light and chlorophyll). It occurs in chloroplasts and is endothermic. The rate is affected by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. Limiting factors can be investigated using pondweed to measure oxygen bubble production.
光合作用是绿色植物及某些微生物利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气的过程。文字方程式：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气（在光和叶绿素存在下）。它发生在叶绿体中，是吸热反应。速率受光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度影响。可使用水草测量氧气气泡产生量来研究限制因子。
ioxide + water (+ energy). It occurs continuously in mitochondria. Anaerobic respiration in animal cells produces lactic acid and less energy; in plant and yeast cells, it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. Respiration is exothermic. The energy released is used for muscle contraction, maintaining body temperature, active transport, and building larger molecules.
有氧呼吸利用氧气从葡萄糖中释放能量。文字方程式：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水（+ 能量）。它在线粒体中持续进行。动物细胞的无氧呼吸产生乳酸和较少能量；植物和酵母细胞的无氧呼吸产生乙醇和二氧化碳。呼吸作用是放热反应。释放的能量用于肌肉收缩、维持体温、主动运输和合成大分子。
10. Health and Disease | 健康与疾病
A pathogen is a microorganism that causes infectious disease. The four main types are viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists. Viruses (e.g., measles, HIV, tobacco mosaic virus) invade host cells to reproduce. Bacteria (e.g., Salmonella, gonorrhoea) may produce toxins. Fungal diseases (e.g., rose black spot, athlete's foot) can spread via spores. Protist pathogens include Plasmodium, which causes malaria and is transmitted by mosquito vectors.
病原体是引起传染病的微生物。四大类为病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。病毒（如麻疹、HIV、烟草花叶病毒）侵入宿主细胞进行繁殖。细菌（如沙门氏菌、淋病）可产生毒素。真菌病（如玫瑰黑斑病、脚癣）通过孢子传播。原生生物病原体包括引起疟疾的疟原虫，由蚊子媒介传播。
The body defends itself through non-specific defences (skin, mucus, stomach acid) and the specific immune system. White blood cells can engulf pathogens (phagocytosis), produce antibodies, and make antitoxins. Vaccination involves introducing a dead or weakened form of a pathogen to stimulate antibody production, creating immunological memory. Antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) kill bacteria but not viruses. The rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (e.g., MRSA) is a growing concern due to natural selection.
人体通过非特异性防御（皮肤、黏液、胃酸）和特异性免疫系统进行自我保护。白细胞能吞噬病原体、产生抗体和抗毒素。疫苗接种通过引入灭活或减毒的病原体，刺激抗体产生，形成免疫记忆。抗生素（如青霉素）能杀死细菌，但对病毒无效。由于自然选择，抗生素耐药细菌（如 MRSA）的出现日益令人担忧。
11. Evolution and Classification | 进化与分类
Evolution is the gradual change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time, driven by natural selection. Charles Darwin proposed that individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits on. This leads to adaptation to the environment. Evidence for evolution includes fossils, which show gradual changes in organisms over millions of years, and the increasing antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
进化是种群遗传特征随时间的逐渐变化，由自然选择驱动。达尔文提出，具有有利特征的个体更可能生存和繁殖，并将这些特征传递下去。这导致了对环境的适应。进化证据包括化石，显示数亿年间生物的渐变性变化，以及细菌中逐渐增强的抗生素耐药性。
Modern taxonomy classifies organisms based on evolutionary relationships. The binomial naming system uses genus and species, e.g., Homo sapiens. The three-domain system (Archaea, Bacteria, Eukaryota) was developed by Carl Woese using genetic analysis. Evolutionary trees (phylogenetic trees) show how species are related. Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which humans breed organisms with desired characteristics, different from natural selection; examples include dog breeds and crop varieties.
现代分类学基于进化关系对生物进行分类。双名法使用属名和种名，例如智人。卡尔·乌斯通过基因分析建立了三域系统（古菌域、细菌域、真核域）。进化树显示物种间的亲缘关系。选择性育种（人工选择）是人类培育具有所需特征生物的过程，与自然选择不同；例子包括犬种和作物品种。
12. Practical Skills and Key Terms | 实验技能与关键术语
In Biology, you must be familiar with key practical terms: independent variable (what you change), dependent variable (what you measure), control variables (what you keep the same). A hypothesis is a testable prediction. Reliability is improved by repeating measurements and calculating a mean, avoiding anomalous results. Using a control group ensures changes are due to the independent variable alone. Aseptic technique is vital when culturing microorganisms to avoid contamination.
在生物学中，必须熟悉关键实验术语：自变量（你改变的变量），因变量（你测量的变量），控制变量（你保持不变的变量）。假设是一个可检验的预测。通过重复测量并计算平均值可提高可靠性，避免异常结果。使用对照组可确保变化仅由自变量引起。培养微生物时，无菌操作对于避免污染至关重要。
objective lens magnification. When drawing biological specimens, use clear, continuous lines; label with straight rule lines; indicate magnification or scale bar. Quadrats and transects are used to estimate population size and distribution in ecology. A quadrat is a square frame placed randomly; a transect is a line along which samples are taken to study zonation. Safety is paramount – always wear goggles and gloves where required.
显微镜技能：总放大倍数 = 目镜倍数 × 物镜倍数。绘制生物标本时，使用清晰连续的线条；用尺子划直线标注；标明放大倍数或比例尺。样方和样线用于生态学中估算种群大小和分布。样方是一个随机放置的方框；样线是沿一条线取样以研究带状分布。安全第一——必要时始终佩戴护目镜和手套。
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