📚 Year 11 Eduqas Biology: Core Knowledge Review | Year 11 Eduqas 生物：核心知识点梳理
Welcome to the essential revision guide for Year 11 Eduqas Biology. This article distils the core knowledge you need to master the specification, covering key topics from cell structure to ecology, inheritance, and homeostasis. Each section pairs concise explanations in English and Chinese, making it easier to consolidate your understanding and prepare for exams efficiently.
欢迎阅读 Year 11 Eduqas 生物核心知识梳理指南。本文浓缩了考试大纲要求的核心知识点，涵盖从细胞结构到生态学、遗传和稳态等关键主题。每个部分都以简洁的中英双语对照讲解，帮助你巩固理解并高效备考。
1. Cell Structure and Function | 细胞结构与功能
All living organisms are made of cells. Cells can be prokaryotic (bacteria) or eukaryotic (animals, plants, fungi). Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and have a single loop of DNA and plasmids.
所有生物都由细胞组成。细胞可分为原核细胞（细菌）和真核细胞（动物、植物、真菌）。真核细胞具有细胞核和具膜细胞器，而原核细胞没有成形的细胞核，只有一条环状DNA及质粒。
Key organelles in eukaryotic cells include: mitochondria – the site of aerobic respiration; ribosomes – protein synthesis; and chloroplasts – where photosynthesis occurs in plants. Plant cells also have a cellulose cell wall and a large permanent vacuole.
真核细胞中关键的细胞器包括：线粒体（有氧呼吸的场所）、核糖体（蛋白质合成）和叶绿体（植物光合作用的场所）。植物细胞还有纤维素构成的细胞壁和大型中央液泡。
etails such as internal structures of mitochondria and ribosomes. The formula for magnification is: magnification = image size ÷ actual size.
显微镜使我们能观察细胞。光学显微镜放大率和分辨率较低，而电子显微镜可以显示线粒体内部结构、核糖体等更精细的细节。放大倍数计算公式：放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小。
2. Cell Division and Stem Cells | 细胞分裂与干细胞
The cell cycle includes interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells, essential for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. The stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
细胞周期包括间期、有丝分裂和胞质分裂。有丝分裂产生两个遗传上完全相同的二倍体子细胞，对生长、修复和无性生殖至关重要。有丝分裂的阶段包括前期、中期、后期和末期。
Meiosis produces four genetically varied haploid gametes (sperm or egg cells). It involves two divisions and results in halving the chromosome number, which is important for sexual reproduction and generating genetic variation.
减数分裂产生四个遗传上不同的单倍体配子（精子或卵细胞）。它包括两次分裂，染色体数目减半，这对于有性生殖和产生遗传变异非常重要。
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can divide and develop into specialised cell types. Embryonic stem cells can become any cell type, while adult stem cells are limited. In plants, meristems contain stem cells that allow continuous growth.
干细胞是未分化的细胞，能分裂并分化成特化的细胞类型。胚胎干细胞可分化为任何类型的细胞，成体干细胞分化能力有限。植物中的分生组织含有干细胞，使植物能持续生长。
3. Transport in Cells | 细胞运输
Substances move across cell membranes by diffusion, osmosis, and active transport. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down the concentration gradient. It is a passive process requiring no energy.
物质通过扩散、渗透和主动运输穿过细胞膜。扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动，顺浓度梯度进行，属于不消耗能量的被动过程。
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane. A hypertonic solution causes plant cells to become plasmolysed, while animal cells shrink.
渗透是水分子通过半透膜从稀释溶液向较浓溶液的净移动。高渗溶液会导致植物细胞质壁分离，动物细胞则发生皱缩。
Active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient, from low to high concentration, using energy from respiration. This is crucial for the uptake of mineral ions by root hair cells and for absorption of glucose in the small intestine.
主动运输逆浓度梯度运输物质，即从低浓度到高浓度，需要呼吸作用提供的能量。这对根毛细胞吸收矿物质离子以及小肠吸收葡萄糖至关重要。
4. The Digestive System and Enzymes | 消化系统与酶
The human digestive system breaks down large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble ones for absorption. Major organs include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas.
人体消化系统将大分子不溶性物质分解为可吸收的小分子可溶性物质。主要器官包括口腔、食道、胃、小肠、大肠，以及肝脏和胰腺等附属器官。
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up. They have an active site with a specific shape complementary to the substrate. The lock-and-key model explains enzyme specificity. High temperatures and extreme pH can denature the enzyme, changing the active site shape.
酶是生物催化剂，能加速化学反应且自身不被消耗。酶有一个活性部位，其形状与底物互补。锁钥模型解释了酶的专一性。高温和极端pH会使酶变性，改变活性部位形状。
| Enzyme / 酶 | Site of production & action / 产生和作用部位 | Substrate / 底物 | Products / 产物 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbohydrase (amylase) / 糖酶(淀粉酶) | Salivary glands, pancreas; mouth, small intestine | Starch / 淀粉 | Maltose / 麦芽糖 |
| Protease / 蛋白酶 | Stomach (pepsin), pancreas; stomach, small intestine | Protein / 蛋白质 | Amino acids / 氨基酸 |
| Lipase / 脂肪酶 | Pancreas; small intestine | Lipids (fats) / 脂类(脂肪) | Glycerol and fatty acids / 甘油和脂肪酸 |
Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fats and neutralises stomach acid, providing an optimum pH for enzymes in the small intestine.
胆汁由肝脏产生，储存在胆囊中，能乳化脂肪并中和胃酸，为小肠内的酶提供最适pH值。
5. The Circulatory System | 循环系统
The human circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It is a double circulation: the pulmonary circuit carries blood to the lungs for gas exchange, and the systemic circuit delivers oxygenated blood to the body.
人体循环系统由心脏、血管和血液组成，属于双循环：肺循环将血液送往肺部进行气体交换，体循环将充氧血输送到全身。
The heart has four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle. Valves prevent backflow of blood. The wall of the left ventricle is thicker because it pumps blood around the whole body under high pressure.
心脏有四个腔室：右心房、右心室、左心房和左心室。瓣膜防止血液倒流。左心室壁更厚，因为它在高压下将血液泵送至全身。
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and have thick, muscular walls to withstand high pressure. Veins return blood to the heart and contain valves. Capillaries are one-cell thick to allow efficient exchange of substances.
动脉将血液带离心脏，其管壁厚、肌肉发达，能承受高压。静脉将血液送回心脏，内有瓣膜。毛细血管仅一层细胞厚，利于物质高效交换。
Blood consists of red blood cells (carry oxygen via haemoglobin), white blood cells (immune defence), platelets (clotting), and plasma (transports nutrients, hormones, and waste).
血液由红细胞（通过血红蛋白携带氧气）、白细胞（免疫防御）、血小板（凝血）和血浆（运输营养物质、激素和废物）组成。
6. Plant Transport Systems | 植物运输系统
Xylem tissue transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves. Xylem cells are dead, strengthened by lignin, and form hollow tubes. The transpiration stream is driven by evaporation of water from leaf stomata.
木质部组织将水和溶解的矿物质从根部运输到叶片。木质部细胞是死细胞，由木质素加固，形成中空管道。蒸腾作用中叶片气孔的水分蒸发驱动了蒸腾流。
Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars (translocation) from sources (e.g. leaves) to sinks (e.g. roots, fruits) where they are used or stored. Phloem cells are living and arranged with companion cells.
韧皮部组织输送溶解的糖类（易位作用），从源（如叶片）到库（如根、果实），在那里被利用或储存。韧皮部细胞是活细胞，并与伴胞相连。
Transpiration rate is affected by light intensity, temperature, humidity, and air movement. More light and higher temperatures increase transpiration, while high humidity reduces it. Guard cells control stomatal opening.
蒸腾速率受光照强度、温度、湿度和空气流动影响。光照增强和温度升高会促进蒸腾，高湿度则降低蒸腾。保卫细胞控制气孔的开闭。
7. Infectious Diseases and Immune Response | 传染病与免疫应答
Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists. They cause disease by damaging cells or producing toxins. The body has non-specific defences such as the skin, nose hairs, mucus, and stomach acid; and specific immune responses involving white blood cells.
病原体包括细菌、病毒、真菌和原生生物，它们通过损伤细胞或产生毒素引发疾病。人体具有非特异性防御，如皮肤、鼻毛、黏液和胃酸；以及涉及白细胞的免疫应答。
Phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens non-specifically. Lymphocytes produce specific antibodies that bind to antigens on pathogens, leading to their destruction. Memory lymphocytes provide long-term immunity.
吞噬细胞非特异性地吞噬并消化病原体。淋巴细胞产生特异性抗体，与病原体上的抗原结合，导致病原体被破坏。记忆淋巴细胞提供长期免疫力。
Vaccination introduces a harmless form of an antigen to stimulate an immune response, producing memory cells. This protects against future infections. Antibiotics kill bacteria but are ineffective against viruses.
疫苗接种引入无害形式的抗原，刺激免疫应答并产生记忆细胞，从而预防未来感染。抗生素能杀死细菌，但对病毒无效。
The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, such as MRSA, is a serious concern. To slow resistance, patients should complete prescribed courses and avoid unnecessary antibiotic use.
抗生素耐药菌（如MRSA）的出现是重大威胁。为减缓耐药性，患者应完成处方疗程，并避免不必要的抗生素使用。
8. Photosynthesis and Plant Nutrition | 光合作用与植物营养
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants manufacture glucose using light energy. It occurs in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. The word equation and balanced symbol equation are:
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ (光能/light energy)
光合作用是植物利用光能制造葡萄糖的过程，发生在含有叶绿素的叶绿体中。文字方程式和符号方程式为：二氧化碳＋水 → 葡萄糖＋氧，如上所示。
Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature are limiting factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis. At low levels, increasing any one of these can raise the rate, until another factor becomes limiting.
光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度是影响光合作用速率的限制因素。在低水平时，提高任一因素可增加速率，直到另一个因素变为限制性因素。
Glucose produced is used for respiration, converted to starch for storage, used to make cellulose for cell walls, combined with nitrates to form amino acids, or converted into lipids for energy storage.
产生的葡萄糖可用于呼吸作用、转变成淀粉储存、合成纤维素构建细胞壁、与硝酸盐结合生成氨基酸，或者转化为脂质储存能量。
Plants absorb nitrates from the soil for protein synthesis; a deficiency leads to stunted growth. Magnesium ions are needed to make chlorophyll; deficiency causes yellowing (chlorosis).
植物从土壤中吸收硝酸盐用于蛋白质合成，缺乏会导致生长迟缓。镁离子是合成叶绿素所必需，缺乏则叶片黄化（缺绿症）。
9. Cellular Respiration | 细胞呼吸
Respiration is an exothermic reaction that releases energy from glucose for cellular activities. It occurs continuously in all living cells. The energy is used for muscle contraction, maintaining body temperature, active transport, and building larger molecules.
呼吸作用是一种放热反应，从葡萄糖中释放能量供应细胞活动，所有活细胞中持续进行。能量用于肌肉收缩、维持体温、主动运输和合成大分子。
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and releases a large amount of energy. The balanced symbol equation is:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O (+ energy/能量)
有氧呼吸需要氧气，释放大量能量。平衡化学方程式如上。
Anaerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is insufficient. In muscles, glucose is converted to lactic acid, causing fatigue and oxygen debt. In yeast and plants, ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced (fermentation).
当氧气不足时发生无氧呼吸。在肌肉中，葡萄糖转化为乳酸，导致疲劳和氧债。在酵母和植物中，产生乙醇和二氧化碳（发酵）。
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism, including synthesis of new molecules and breakdown of substrates. Respiration is a key metabolic pathway.
新陈代谢是生物体内所有化学反应的总和，包括新分子的合成和物质的分解。呼吸作用是关键的代谢途径。
10. Homeostasis and the Nervous System | 稳态与神经系统
Homeostasis maintains a stable internal environment despite external changes. Controlled conditions include blood glucose, body temperature, and water balance. The nervous system enables rapid, short-lived responses via electrical impulses along neurones.
稳态通过调节维持稳定的内环境，不受外界变化影响。受控条件包括血糖、体温和水分平衡。神经系统通过沿神经元传递的电冲动产生快速而短暂的反应。
A reflex arc involves a stimulus detected by a receptor, a sensory neurone, a relay neurone in the spinal cord, a motor neurone, and an effector (muscle or gland). Synapses use neurotransmitters to pass impulses between neurones.
反射弧包括感受器检测刺激、感觉神经元、脊髓中的联络神经元、运动神经元和效应器（肌肉或腺体）。突触通过神经递质在神经元之间传递冲动。
The thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus monitors blood temperature. Cooling responses include vasodilation and sweating; warming responses include vasoconstriction and shivering.
下丘脑的体温调节中枢监测血液温度。散热反应包括血管舒张和出汗；保暖反应包括血管收缩和寒颤。
11. Hormonal Coordination | 激素协调
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands and transported in the bloodstream. They bring about slower, longer-lasting responses compared to nerves. Key glands include the pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.
激素是由内分泌腺分泌并通过血液运输的化学信使。与神经相比，激素引发较慢但持久的作用。主要腺体包括垂体、甲状腺、胰腺、卵巢和睾丸。
Blood glucose regulation involves insulin and glucagon from the pancreas. When glucose rises, insulin promotes uptake and conversion to glycogen. When it falls, glucagon stimulates glycogen breakdown into glucose.
血糖调节涉及胰腺分泌的胰岛素和胰高血糖素。血糖升高时，胰岛素促进摄取并转化为糖原。血糖下降时，胰高血糖素促使糖原分解为葡萄糖。
Type 1 diabetes results from the pancreas failing to produce insulin; treatment requires insulin injections. Type 2 diabetes occurs when body cells become resistant to insulin, often linked to obesity and lifestyle factors.
1型糖尿病源于胰腺不能产生胰岛素，需注射胰岛素治疗。2型糖尿病是因身体细胞对胰岛素产生抵抗，常与肥胖和生活方式因素相关。
Adrenaline prepares the body for 'fight or flight' by increasing heart rate and diverting blood to muscles. Thyroxine regulates metabolic rate and is controlled by negative feedback involving the pituitary.
肾上腺素通过增加心率、将血液导向肌肉，使身体做好“战斗或逃跑”准备。甲状腺素调节代谢率，并通过负反馈与垂体进行调控。
12. Inheritance, Variation and Evolution | 遗传、变异与进化
DNA is a double helix polymer containing the genetic code. A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein. Alleles are different versions of the same gene. The combination of alleles determines the genotype, while the observable characteristic is the phenotype.
DNA是双螺旋结构的聚合物，携载遗传密码。基因是一段编码特定蛋白质的DNA序列。等位基因是同一基因的不同形式。等位基因组合决定基因型，可观察的特征为表现型。
In a monohybrid cross, a homozygous dominant (e.g. TT for tall) crossed with homozygous recessive (tt) yields heterozygous offspring (Tt) showing the dominant trait. A Punnett square predicts offspring ratios.
在单基因杂交中，纯合显性（如TT表高茎）与纯合隐性（tt）杂交得到杂合子代（Tt），表现显性性状。庞纳特方格可预测后代比例。
TT × tt → all Tt (tall) | Tt × Tt → 3:1 ratio (tall : short)
Mutations are changes in DNA that can alter protein structure. Some mutations are harmful, some neutral, and some beneficial. Variation arises from genetic differences and environmental influences. Natural selection acts on this variation – organisms with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more, leading to evolution.
突变是DNA的改变，可能改变蛋白质结构。有些突变有害、有些中性、有些有利。变异源于遗传差异和环境的影响。自然选择作用于变异——具有有利性状的生物更易生存和繁殖，从而导致进化。
Evidence for evolution includes fossils and antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Selective breeding (artificial selection) involves humans breeding organisms for desired traits, but it can reduce genetic diversity.
进化的证据包括化石和细菌的抗生素抗性。选择性育种（人工选择）是人类为了所需性状而繁殖生物，但可能降低遗传多样性。
Ecosystems are organised from individual organisms, populations, communities, to ecosystems. Energy is transferred along food chains, but only about 10% passes to the next trophic level. Carbon and water cycles recycle vital nutrients.
生态系统从个体、种群、群落到生态系统逐级组织。能量沿食物链传递，但仅有约10%转移到下一个营养级。碳循环和水循环使得关键营养物质得以循环利用。
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