📚 WJEC Philosophy: Key Terminology Quick Revision Guide | WJEC 哲学：关键术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical vocabulary is not about rote learning — it is about training your mind to spot concepts quickly in exam questions. This guide groups essential WJEC Year 11 terms into ten themed sections, with dual-language definitions and memorable hooks designed to make revision efficient and even enjoyable. By linking each term to a simple visual or phrase, you will build the confidence to deploy these ideas clearly in essays and timed assessments.
掌握哲学术语并不是死记硬背，而是训练你的大脑在考题中快速识别概念。这份指南将 WJEC 十一年级的关键术语按照十大主题分组，提供双语定义和易记口诀，让你的复习变得高效甚至有趣。通过把每个术语对应一个简单的画面或短语，你就能在论文和限时考试中自信地运用这些思想。
1. Metaphysics Basics | 形而上学基础
Metaphysics asks the ultimate question: What is there? It explores the nature of reality, existence, and the fundamental structure of the world. Think of it as the branch of philosophy that peers behind the curtain of everyday appearances.
形而上学 追问根本性的问题：存在着什么？它探究实在、存在以及世界的基本结构。你可以把它想象成掀开日常表象帷幕的那个哲学分支。
Ontology is the study of being itself — what it means for something to exist. A simple memory hook: 'Ontology = On/Off switch of existence.'
本体论 研究存在本身——即事物存在的意义。一个简单的记忆口诀：'本体论 = 存在的开关'。
Substance refers to the fundamental stuff that makes a thing what it is, independent of its properties. For example, a chair remains a chair whether it is painted red or blue — its substance persists.
实体 指的是使一事物成为其自身的根本质料，独立于它的属性。例如，一把椅子无论漆成红色还是蓝色，它还是椅子——其实体持续存在。
Dualism posits that mind and body are two distinct substances. Remember Descartes: 'Two worlds, one me.'
二元论 主张心灵与身体是两种不同的实体。记住笛卡尔：'两个世界，一个我'。
Materialism counters that everything is physical, including consciousness. Mentally picture a brain lighting up on a scanner — all thought reduces to matter.
唯物主义 反驳说一切都是物理的，包括意识。在脑海中想象扫描仪上发亮的大脑——一切思想都可还原为物质。
2. Epistemology Core | 认识论核心
Epistemology examines knowledge itself — what we can know and how we come to know it. It is the security check at the airport of belief: not every passenger gets through to knowledge.
认识论 审视知识本身——我们能知道什么以及我们如何认识它。它是信念机场的安检口：并非每位旅客都能通过成为知识。
A priori knowledge is independent of experience (e.g., 'All bachelors are unmarried'). Think 'prior to the senses'.
先验 知识独立于经验（例如'所有单身汉都未婚'）。联想'先于感官'。
A posteriori knowledge depends on experience — you need to look, touch, or test the world. 'Post-experience' is the key phrase.
后验 知识依赖于经验——你需要观察、触摸或测试世界。关键词是'经验之后'。
Empiricism claims the senses are the ultimate source of all knowledge. Tabula rasa — the blank slate — is its iconic image.
经验主义 声称感官是一切知识的最终来源。白板——空白的石板——是其标志性图像。
Rationalism insists reason alone can unlock fundamental truths. Picture a mathematician solving equations without leaving her armchair.
理性主义 坚持单凭理性就能揭示根本真理。想象一位数学家坐在扶手椅上就能解方程。
3. The Tripartite Definition of Knowledge | 知识的三元定义
Since Plato, philosophers have often defined knowledge as justified true belief (JTB). Each component is essential: you must believe it, it must be true, and you must have good reasons for your belief. A broken clock is correct twice a day but you do not know the time if you glance at it randomly — your true belief lacks justification.
自柏拉图以来，哲学家常将知识定义为得到辩护的真信念 (JTB)。每个组成部分都不可或缺：你必须相信它，它必须为真，并且你必须有充分的理由支持你的信念。一个坏掉的钟每天准两次，但如果你随便看一眼，你并不知道正确时间——你的真信念缺乏辩护。
Belief is the mental acceptance of a proposition. Without belief, there is no candidate for knowledge.
信念 是对命题的心理接受。没有信念，就没有知识的候选者。
Truth requires correspondence with reality. Pragmatic tip: if a claim would still be true if nobody believed it, it passes the test.
真理 要求与实在相符合。实用技巧：如果一个主张在无人相信时仍为真，它就通过了检验。
Justification provides the rational ground — evidence, reasoning, or reliable testimony. 'Why should I accept this?' is the justifying question.
辩护 提供理性基础——证据、推理或可靠证词。辩护性的提问是：'我凭什么该接受这一点？'
4. The Gettier Problem | 葛梯尔问题
In 1963, Edmund Gettier published a three-page paper that shook epistemology by showing that justified true belief is not always knowledge. The problem arises when luck plays a role in connecting justification to truth. A farmer checks a field, sees a sheep-shaped object, believes 'There is a sheep in the field', and is right — but the object was a rock, while a real sheep hid behind a bush. His belief was justified and true, yet we hesitate to call it knowledge.
1963 年，埃德蒙德·葛梯尔发表了一篇三页论文，动摇了认识论，指出得到辩护的真信念并不总是知识。当运气在辩护与真理之间起了作用时，问题就出现了。一个农民检查田野，看见一个羊形的物体，相信'田野里有一只羊'，而且他是对的——但那物体是一块岩石，真正的羊藏在灌木丛后面。他的信念是得到辩护且为真的，但我们不太愿意称之为知识。
Gettier cases are scenarios where accidental correctness undermines knowledge claims. The memory hook: 'Right for the wrong reason = Gettiered.'
葛梯尔案例 是指偶然的正确性削弱了知识主张的情形。记忆口诀：'错因对果 = 被葛梯尔了'。
Infallibilism is one response — demanding absolute certainty for knowledge. This raises the bar so high that very little passes.
无误论 是一种回应——要求知识具有绝对确定性。这把门槛抬得太高，几乎没有知识能通过。
Reliabilism shifts focus to the process: if a belief is formed by a reliable cognitive mechanism, it counts as knowledge even if some luck is involved.
可靠论 将焦点转移到过程上：如果一个信念是通过可靠的认知机制形成的，即使涉及一些运气，它也算作知识。
5. Philosophy of Religion: God's Attributes | 宗教哲学：上帝的属性
The WJEC course requires fluency in the classical divine attributes, especially those central to arguments for God's existence. Treat each attribute as a conceptual tool that later feeds into the cosmological and teleological arguments.
WJEC 课程要求学生熟练掌握经典的神圣属性，尤其是那些对上帝存在论证至关重要的属性。把每个属性当作一个概念工具，后续会引入宇宙论和目的论论证。
Omnipotence means all-powerful. The quick question: can God create a stone so heavy He cannot lift it? The paradox tests the coherence of unlimited power.
全能 意味着无所不能。一个经典问题：上帝能否创造一块重到他举不起来的石头？这个悖论检验了无限能力的自洽性。
Omniscience is all-knowing — God knows every fact past, present, and future. Does this include knowledge of human choices before they happen?
全知 是无所不知——上帝知晓过去、现在和未来的一切事实。这是否包括提前知道人类尚未做出的选择？
Omnibenevolence signifies perfect goodness. It sits in immediate tension with the existence of evil, the core of the problem of evil.
全善 表示完美的善。它与恶的存在直接构成张力，这是恶的问题的核心。
Eternal / Everlasting: 'eternal' often means timeless — outside time entirely; 'everlasting' means existing at every moment within time. The distinction matters for free will debates.
永恒 / 永存：'永恒'通常指超时间的——完全在时间之外；'永存'指在时间内的每一刻都存在。这个区分在自由意志争论中很重要。
6. Cosmological and Teleological Arguments | 宇宙论与目的论论证
Cosmological arguments start from the simple fact that something exists rather than nothing and try to reason back to a first cause. Aquinas's 'First Way' observes motion and argues for an Unmoved Mover. Visual trick: chain of dominoes knocking one another, and you need a first finger to push.
宇宙论论证 从'存在而非虚无'这个简单事实出发，试图回溯到一个第一因。阿奎那的'第一路'观察运动并论证一个不动的推动者。视觉诀窍：一连串多米诺骨牌互相推倒，你需要第一根手指去推。
Contingency describes things that depend on something else for their existence. A necessary being, by contrast, does not depend on anything and must exist. The memory rhyme: 'Contingent is dependent.'
偶然性 描述那些依赖他物而存在的事物。而必然存在者则相反，不依赖任何东西，且必然存在。记忆押韵句：'偶然即依赖'。
Teleological arguments point to design in nature. Paley's watchmaker analogy: walking on a heath, you find a watch — its complexity implies a designer. The universe, vastly more intricate, must likewise have one.
目的论论证 指向自然中的设计。佩利的钟表匠类比：走在荒野上，你发现一块手表——它的复杂性暗示着一位设计者。宇宙如此精妙，也必须有一个设计者。
Fine-tuning is the modern design argument. The physical constants of the universe appear calibrated to permit life. Slightly alter gravity or the strong nuclear force, and stars never form.
精细调谐 是现代设计论证。宇宙的物理常数似乎被精确校准以允许生命存在。稍微改变引力或强核力，恒星就永远不会形成。
7. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
This is arguably the most emotionally powerful challenge to belief in a loving, all-powerful God. If God is omnipotent and omnibenevolent, why does evil exist? The logical problem argues that the triad is logically incompatible; the evidential problem says the sheer amount and distribution of evil makes God's existence improbable.
这也许是针对慈爱、全能上帝信仰的情感上最强烈的挑战。如果上帝全能和全善，为什么还会有恶存在？逻辑问题认为这三者逻辑上不可兼容；证据问题则说恶的数量和分布让上帝的存在变得不太可能。
Moral evil results from human choices — murder, theft, cruelty. 'Evil we commit.'
道德恶 源于人的选择——谋杀、偷窃、残忍。'我们造成的恶'。
Natural evil arises from the natural world — earthquakes, diseases, tsunamis. 'Evil nature inflicts.'
自然恶 源于自然界——地震、疾病、海啸。'自然界造成的恶'。
Theodicy is an attempt to justify God's goodness despite evil. The word itself means 'God's justice'. Think 'Theo-justice'.
神义论 是在恶存在的前提下为上帝的善辩护的尝试。这个词本身意为'神的正义'。联想 'Theo-正义'。
Free Will Defence: moral evil is the price of genuine free will. A world with free beings who sometimes choose wrongly is better than a world of robots who always do right.
自由意志辩护：道德恶是真自由意志的代价。一个拥有自由存在者、他们有时会选错的世界，比一个尽是永远正确行事的机器人的世界更好。
8. Ethical Theory: Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics | 伦理理论：功利主义与康德伦理学
WJEC expects you to contrast consequentialist and deontological approaches. The distinction is fundamental: look at the outcome versus look at the act itself.
WJEC 期望你能对比后果论和义务论的方法。这个区分是根本性的：看结果还是看行为本身。
Utilitarianism, advanced by Bentham and Mill, judges actions by their consequences. The guiding slogan: 'The greatest happiness for the greatest number.' Think of a happiness calculator — the hedonic calculus — weighing pleasure against pain.
功利主义 由边沁和密尔提出，以后果来判断行为。指导口号是：'最大多数人的最大幸福'。想象一台幸福计算器——快乐计算法——权衡快乐与痛苦。
Hedonic Calculus is Bentham's seven-factor tool: intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent. A mnemonic: 'In Dublin City People Frequently Play Euphonium' (IDCPFPE).
快乐计算法 是边沁的七因素工具：强度、持续时间、确定性、远近度、繁殖力、纯度和广度。一个助记句：'大城市的居民频繁地演奏上低音号' (IDCPFPE)。
Kantian Ethics focuses on duty and the categorical imperative. Act only according to maxims that you could will to become universal laws. Never treat a person merely as a means to an end.
康德伦理学 聚焦于义务和定言命令。只按照你能够意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。永远不要把人仅仅当作手段。
Categorical Imperative is unconditional — it applies regardless of your desires. Contrast with hypothetical imperatives ('If you want X, do Y').
定言命令 是无条件的——无论你的欲望如何它都适用。与假言命令相对（'如果你想要 X，就做 Y'）。
9. Logic and Argument Structure | 逻辑与论证结构
Sharpening your logical vocabulary protects you from being fooled by weak arguments and helps you construct watertight essays. Every philosophy exam rewards precise structural analysis.
打磨你的逻辑词汇表可以保护你不被薄弱的论证所蒙骗，并帮助你构建滴水不漏的论文。每次哲学考试都奖赏精确的结构分析。
Premise is a statement offered as evidence in an argument. Arguments typically have one or more premises leading to a conclusion.
前提 是在论证中作为证据提出的陈述。论证通常有一个或多个前提导向结论。
Conclusion is the claim the argument tries to establish. Ask yourself in every exam text: 'What is the author trying to convince me of?'
结论 是论证试图确立的主张。在每一篇考试文本中问自己：'作者想让我相信什么？'
Deduction aims at certainty: if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore Socrates is mortal.
演绎 旨在确定性：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。
Induction offers probability: the sun has risen every day in recorded history, so it will probably rise tomorrow. It amplifies evidence but never guarantees.
归纳 提供概率：有记载以来太阳每天升起，所以明天太阳很可能还会升起。它扩大证据但从不保证。
Fallacy is a persuasive but logically flawed argument. The ad hominem fallacy attacks the person, not the argument. The straw man misrepresents an opponent's view to make it easier to attack.
谬误 是表面上具有说服力但逻辑上有缺陷的论证。人身攻击谬误攻击的是人而非论证。稻草人谬误曲解对方的观点使其更易被攻击。
10. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
This debate sits at the crossroads of metaphysics, ethics, and philosophy of mind. If every event has a cause, do we ever choose freely? And if we do not, can we be held morally responsible?
这场辩论处于形而上学、伦理学和心灵哲学的交叉口。如果每个事件都有原因，我们还能自由选择吗？如果不自由，我们还能承担道德责任吗？
Determinism states that every event, including human actions, is the inevitable result of prior causes. Picture a long chain of dominoes stretching back to the Big Bang.
决定论 主张每个事件，包括人类行为，都是先前原因的必然结果。想象一长串多米诺骨牌一直追溯到宇宙大爆炸。
Libertarianism (in the free will sense) asserts that we have genuine, undetermined free will. We are the uncaused causers of our actions. This is not the political philosophy — context is everything.
自由意志论（在自由意志意义上）断言我们拥有真正的、非被决定的自由意志。我们是我们行为的无因之因。这不是政治哲学——语境决定一切。
Compatibilism softens the conflict: free will and determinism are compatible. Freedom means acting according to your desires without external coercion, even if those desires are themselves determined. 'Free ain't uncaused — it is unforced.'
相容论 缓和了这个冲突：自由意志与决定论是相容的。自由意味着按照你自己的欲望行动且无外在强制，即使这些欲望本身是被决定的。'自由不是无因——而是无强制'。
Moral responsibility is the status of deserving praise or blame for one's actions. If determinism is true and incompatible with free will, the whole edifice of punishment and reward wobbles.
道德责任 是指对自身行为值得赞扬或责备的地位。如果决定论为真且与自由意志不相容，整个奖惩大厦就会动摇。
11. Mind and Body | 心灵与身体
What is consciousness, and how does it relate to the physical brain? This section ties directly back to the substance dualism and materialism introduced under metaphysics. Use it to draw connections across the syllabus.
意识是什么，它如何与物理大脑相关联？本节直接连接到形而上学中引入的实体二元论和唯物主义。用它来建立课程不同部分之间的联系。
Qualia are the subjective, 'what-it-is-like' aspects of experience — the redness of red, the painfulness of pain. They are notoriously hard to explain in purely physical terms.
感质 是经验中主观的'感觉像是什么'的方面——红色的红感，疼痛的痛感。它们以难以用纯物理术语解释而闻名。
Intentionality is the 'aboutness' of mental states. A thought is always about something — a tree, a number, a unicorn, even a unicorn that does not exist. Physical objects do not seem to have this aboutness.
意向性 是心理状态的'关涉性'。一个思想总是关涉某物——一棵树、一个数字、一只独角兽，甚至一只不存在的独角兽。物理对象似乎不具这种关涉性。
Philosophical Zombie is a thought experiment: a being physically identical to a human, with no conscious experience. It walks, talks, reacts — but all is dark inside. If such a zombie is conceivable, physicalism might be false.
哲学僵尸 是一个思想实验：一个物理上与人类完全相同的存在者，却没有意识经验。它行走、说话、反应——但内在一片黑暗。如果这样的僵尸是可以设想的，物理主义可能为假。
12. Language and Meaning | 语言与意义
Philosophy of language may seem dry, but it underpins almost every other debate. If we cannot clarify what our words mean, we cannot even begin to argue about God, knowledge, or ethics.
语言哲学也许显得枯燥，但它支撑着几乎所有其他辩论。如果我们无法澄清我们词语的含义，我们就根本无法开始争论上帝、知识或伦理。
Analytic statements are true by definition — 'All triangles have three sides.' The predicate is contained in the subject. Truth is a matter of language, not world-investigation.
分析陈述 根据定义即为真——'所有三角形都有三条边'。谓词包含在主词之中。真值取决于语言，而非对世界的考察。
Synthetic statements are true or false in virtue of how the world is — 'The cat is on the mat.' You have to look to verify them. Most everyday and scientific claims are synthetic.
综合陈述 的真假取决于世界的实际情况——'猫在垫子上'。你必须观察才能验证它们。多数日常和科学主张都是综合的。
Necessary truth could not have been false in any possible world: 2+2=4. Contingent truth happens to be true but could have been otherwise: 'London is the capital of the UK.'
必然真理 在任何可能世界中都不可能为假：2+2=4。偶然真理碰巧为真但本可以不是：'伦敦是英国的首都'。
Verificationism (associated with A. J. Ayer) claims a statement is only meaningful if it is either analytic or empirically verifiable. Religious and ethical language often fail this test — a challenge you can evaluate in essays.
证实主义（与 A. J. 艾耶尔相关）主张一个陈述只有在要么是分析的、要么可被经验证实时才是有意义的。宗教和伦理语言通常通不过这个检验——你可以在论文中评估这一挑战。
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