📚 Year 11 WJEC Sociology: Key Terminology Memory Guide | WJEC 11 年级社会学：关键术语速记指南
Welcome to your essential revision toolkit for the Year 11 WJEC Sociology course. Mastering sociological vocabulary is the key to understanding complex social structures, processes, and debates. This guide breaks down must-know terms by topic, providing concise definitions and paired Chinese explanations to help you retain them efficiently. Whether you're preparing for an end-of-unit assessment or your final examinations, these flashcards-style explanations will strengthen your sociological imagination.
欢迎来到 WJEC 11 年级社会学课程的核心复习工具箱。掌握社会学词汇是理解复杂社会结构、过程和争论的关键。本指南按照主题梳理了必知术语，给出简洁的定义并配以中文解释，帮助你高效记忆。无论你是在准备单元测验还是最终考试，这些抽认卡式的解读都将强化你的社会学想象力。
1. Culture and Socialisation | 文化与社会化
Culture refers to the entire way of life of a society, including its norms, values, beliefs, language, and material objects. It is learned and shared, shaping how individuals perceive and interact with the world.
文化是指一个社会的整体生活方式，包括其规范、价值观、信仰、语言和物质产物。文化是习得和共享的，塑造了个体对世界的感知与互动方式。
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the culture of their society. Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood within the family, while secondary socialisation takes place through institutions such as schools, peer groups, and the media.
社会化是个体学习其社会文化的终身过程。初级社会化发生在童年早期的家庭之中，而次级社会化则通过学校、同辈群体和媒体等机构进行。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. They vary across cultures and time periods; for example, queuing is a norm in the UK but less formalised elsewhere.
规范是在某个群体或社会中被认为可接受的不成文行为准则。规范因文化和时代而异；比如，排队是英国的一项规范，但在其他地方则不那么正式。
Values are the deeply held principles that underpin norms, such as respect for human life, honesty, and privacy. They guide our judgements about what is good or desirable.
价值观是支撑规范的深层原则，例如对生命的尊重、诚实和隐私。它们指引我们对什么是好的或可取之物的判断。
Social control involves the mechanisms used to ensure conformity to norms and values. Formal social control is exercised by agencies such as the police and courts, while informal control comes from family, peers, and community pressure.
社会控制涉及用来确保符合规范和价值观的机制。正式社会控制由警察和法院等机构实施，而非正式控制则来自家庭、同辈和社区压力。
2. Identity and the Self | 身份与自我
Identity is how we see ourselves and how others see us. It can be personal (unique traits) or social (group memberships such as gender, ethnicity, and class). Sociologists argue that identity is partly shaped by social interaction and cultural context.
身份是我们如何看待自己以及他人如何看待我们。身份可以是个人的（独特特质），也可以是社会的（如性别、族裔和阶级等群体归属）。社会学家认为，身份部分是由社会互动和文化背景塑造的。
Gender identity is a person's internal sense of their own gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth. Socialisation into gender roles begins in infancy through toys, clothing, and parental expectations.
性别认同是一个人对自己性别的内在感受，可能与出生时被分配的生理性别一致，也可能不一致。通过玩具、服装和父母的期望，性别角色的社会化从婴儿期就开始了。
Ethnic identity refers to an individual's sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group, based on shared culture, ancestry, language, or religion. It can be a source of pride and solidarity but may also lead to experiences of discrimination.
族裔认同指个体对某一特定族裔群体的归属感，建立在共同的文化、祖先、语言或宗教基础之上。它可以成为自豪感和团结的来源，但也可能导致歧视的经历。
Stigma is a mark of social disgrace that sets a person apart from others. It can be based on characteristics such as disability, mental illness, or criminal record, and often leads to labelling and discrimination.
污名是一种社会耻辱标记，将某人与他人区隔开来。它可能源于残疾、精神疾病或犯罪记录等特征，并常常导致标签化和歧视。
3. Social Inequality and Stratification | 社会不平等与分层
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes, castes, or other divisions based on factors such as wealth, power, and prestige. In the UK, class remains a significant form of stratification.
社会分层是将个体按财富、权力和声望等因素划分为社会阶级、种姓或其他层级的一种等级化安排。在英国，阶级仍然是一种重要的分层形式。
Life chances is a concept introduced by Max Weber to describe the opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life. These include access to education, healthcare, and employment, and are heavily influenced by class background.
生活机会是马克斯·韦伯提出的概念，用来描述个体提高生活质量的机会。这包括教育、医疗和就业的获取，并深受阶级背景的影响。
Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups up or down the social hierarchy. Upward mobility (e.g., moving from working class to middle class) is often seen as a measure of an open society, but it remains limited by structural factors.
社会流动指个体或群体在社会等级中的上下移动。向上流动（例如从工人阶级上升为中产阶级）常被视为开放社会的衡量标准，但它仍受结构性因素的限制。
Poverty can be defined in absolute terms (lacking basic necessities like food and shelter) or relative terms (being significantly below the average standard of living in a given society). The UK government uses a relative poverty line set at 60% of median household income.
贫困可以定义为绝对贫困（缺乏食物和住所等基本必需品）或相对贫困（显著低于特定社会的平均生活水平）。英国政府使用的相对贫困线设定为家庭收入中位数的60%。
4. Education and Achievement | 教育与成就
Meritocracy is a system in which rewards and positions are allocated on the basis of ability and effort rather than on inherited privilege. Sociologists question whether education truly functions as a meritocracy, pointing to the persistence of class, gender, and ethnic inequalities in attainment.
精英治理是一种根据能力和努力而非世袭特权来分配奖励和职位的制度。社会学家质疑教育是否真正起到精英治理的作用，并指出了成绩中持续存在的阶级、性别和族裔不平等。
Material deprivation refers to a lack of physical resources, such as inadequate housing, poor diet, and insufficient educational materials, which can negatively affect a child's educational performance.
物质匮乏指缺乏物质资源，如住房不足、饮食不良和教育材料欠缺，这些会对儿童的学业表现产生负面影响。
Cultural capital (Bourdieu) describes the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility, such as knowledge, language skills, and familiarity with high culture. Middle-class families often possess more cultural capital, giving their children an advantage in the education system.
文化资本（布迪厄）描述了促进社会流动的非经济性社会资产，如知识、语言技能和对高雅文化的熟悉程度。中产阶级家庭通常拥有更多的文化资本，这使其子女在教育体系中占据优势。
Labelling is the process of attaching a definition or stereotype to an individual, which can influence their self-identity and behaviour. Teachers may label pupils on the basis of class, ethnicity, or perceived ability, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
标签化是将某个定义或刻板印象贴到个体身上的过程，这会影响其自我认同和行为。教师可能根据阶级、族裔或所感知的能力给学生贴标签，从而导致自我实现预言。
5. Families and Households | 家庭与家户
Nuclear family is a household unit consisting of two generations: parents and their dependent children. While often presented as the 'traditional' family form, its dominance has declined with the rise of diverse household structures.
核心家庭是由两代人组成的家户单位：父母及其受抚养的子女。虽然常被描绘为“传统”的家庭形式，但随着多样化的家户结构的兴起，其主导地位已经下降。
Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear family, such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles, who may live together or maintain close ties. In many cultures, extended kin networks provide crucial economic and emotional support.
扩展家庭包括核心家庭以外的亲属，如祖父母、姑姨和叔伯，他们可能共同居住或保持密切联系。在许多文化中，扩展的亲属关系网络提供了至关重要的经济和情感支持。
Conjugal roles refer to the roles played by the male and female partners in a marriage or cohabiting relationship. Joint conjugal roles involve shared tasks and decision-making, while segregated roles keep domestic labour and leisure separate.
夫妻角色指婚姻或同居关系中男女双方所扮演的角色。对称的夫妻角色涉及共同分担家务和决策，而隔离的角色则将家务与休闲分离开来。
Divorce rate is the number of divorces per 1,000 married people per year. Sociologists examine how changes in law, women's economic independence, and shifting attitudes to marriage have contributed to the long-term increase in the divorce rate.
离婚率是每年每千名已婚人口中的离婚数量。社会学家考察了法律变化、女性经济独立以及婚姻观念转变如何促使离婚率长期上升。
6. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Deviance is any behaviour that violates social norms, whether it is criminal or not. What counts as deviant varies across cultures and historical periods; for instance, tattoos were once stigmatised but are now widely accepted.
越轨是指任何违反社会规范的行为，无论是否构成犯罪。什么被视为越轨因文化和历史时期而异；例如，纹身曾经被污名化，但现在已被广泛接受。
Anomie (Durkheim) describes a state of normlessness where shared rules and values break down, often during periods of rapid social change. Durkheim linked anomie to higher rates of suicide and crime.
失范（涂尔干）描述的是一种规范缺失的状态，在这种状态下，共享的规则和价值观瓦解，常发生在社会快速变革时期。涂尔干将失范与较高的自杀率和犯罪率联系起来。
White-collar crime refers to non-violent crimes committed by individuals in professional or business contexts, typically for financial gain. Examples include fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading. These crimes are often less visible and less severely punished than street crime.
白领犯罪指个人在职业或商业背景下为获取经济利益而实施的非暴力犯罪。例如欺诈、贪污和内幕交易。这些犯罪通常比街头犯罪更隐蔽，受到的惩罚也可能更轻。
Moral panic (Cohen) is an exaggerated public reaction to a social group or activity perceived as a threat to societal values. The media amplify the panic, leading to calls for tougher controls. An example is the mods and rockers conflict in the 1960s.
道德恐慌（科恩）是公众对某个被视为威胁社会价值观的社会群体或活动产生的过度反应。媒体会放大恐慌，导致要求加强控制的呼声。20 世纪 60 年代的“摩登派与摇滚派”冲突就是一个例子。
7. Sociological Theory and Methods | 社会学理论与方法
Functionalism is a consensus theory that sees society as a system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability and order. Key thinkers include Durkheim and Parsons, who argued that institutions like the family and education perform vital functions for society.
功能主义是一种共识理论，将社会视为一个由相互关联的部分组成的系统，各部分共同协作以维持稳定与秩序。主要思想家包括涂尔干和帕森斯，他们认为家庭和教育等机构为社会履行了至关重要的功能。
Marxism is a conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx. It focuses on the conflict between the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (working class), and argues that social institutions reflect and reinforce class inequality.
马克思主义是一种基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突理论。它关注资产阶级（资本所有者）与无产阶级（工人阶级）之间的冲突，并认为社会制度反映并强化了阶级不平等。
Feminism examines society through the lens of gender inequality, arguing that patriarchal structures disadvantage women. Liberal feminists focus on legal and political reform, while radical feminists view patriarchy as a fundamental system of oppression.
女性主义从性别不平等的视角审视社会，认为父权制结构使女性处于不利地位。自由女性主义关注法律和政治改革，而激进女性主义则将父权制视为一种根本性的压迫制度。
Qualitative data is non-numerical information, such as interview transcripts, open-ended survey responses, and observations. It provides depth and insight into meanings and experiences, but is harder to generalise.
定性数据是非数字化的信息，如访谈转录、开放式问卷回答和观察记录。它能提供深度和对意义及体验的洞察，但较难推广。
Quantitative data is numerical information that can be analysed statistically, such as official statistics and structured surveys. It allows for large-scale comparisons and identifying trends, but may lack detail about individual motives.
定量数据是可以进行统计分析的数字化信息，如官方统计数据和结构化问卷。它便于进行大规模比较和识别趋势，但可能缺乏关于个体动机的细节。
8. Power and the State | 权力与国家
Power is the ability of an individual or group to get what they want, even in the face of resistance. Weber distinguished between coercive power (force) and legitimate authority, with the latter accepted as right by those who obey.
权力是个人或群体即使在面临抵抗的情况下也能实现其愿望的能力。韦伯区分了强制性权力（武力）和合法的权威，后者被服从者认为是正当的。
The state refers to the institutions that govern a given territory, including the government, civil service, judiciary, police, and military. The state claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its borders.
国家指的是治理某一领土的机构，包括政府、行政机构、司法、警察和军队。国家声称在其疆域内拥有合法使用武力的垄断权。
Democracy is a political system in which citizens have the right to participate in decision-making, typically through voting in free and fair elections. The UK is a liberal democracy with a constitutional monarch and parliamentary sovereignty.
民主是一种公民有权参与决策的政治制度，通常通过在自由公正的选举中投票来实现。英国是一个自由民主国家，实行君主立宪和议会主权。
Citizenship is the status of being a full member of a state, conferring rights (such as the right to vote) and responsibilities (such as obeying the law). Sociologists explore how social inequalities can exclude certain groups from full citizenship.
公民身份是成为国家正式成员的资格，赋予权利（如投票权）和义务（如遵守法律）。社会学家探究社会不平等何以将某些群体排除在完整的公民身份之外。
9. Media and Representation | 媒体与表征
Media representation is the way in which the media portray particular groups, events, or issues. Representations are selective and constructed, and can reinforce or challenge stereotypes about gender, ethnicity, and class.
媒体表征是媒体对特定群体、事件或议题的描绘方式。表征是经过选择和建构的，可能强化或挑战关于性别、族裔和阶级的刻板印象。
Agenda-setting describes the media's power to decide which issues are considered important. By emphasising certain topics and ignoring others, the media shape public perceptions of the key problems facing society.
议程设置描述了媒体决定哪些议题被视为重要的权力。通过强调某些话题而忽视其他话题，媒体塑造了公众对社会所面临的关键问题的认知。
Moral entrepreneur is a term coined by Becker to describe individuals or groups who campaign to create or enforce rules against behaviour they define as deviant. Their efforts can lead to the criminalisation of previously tolerated acts.
道德创业者是贝克尔创造的术语，用来描述那些发起运动以制定或执行规则，反对他们定义为越轨行为的个人或团体。他们的努力可能导致先前被容忍的行为被定罪。
Digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to digital technologies and the internet, and those who do not. This divide can reinforce existing social inequalities in education, employment, and political participation.
数字鸿沟指能够获取数字技术和互联网的人与无法获取者之间的差距。这一鸿沟可能加剧教育、就业和政治参与方面已有的社会不平等。
10. Globalisation and Social Change | 全球化与社会变迁
Globalisation is the increasing interconnectedness of the world through economic, cultural, and political exchanges. It is driven by advances in communication, transportation, and trade liberalisation, and has led to the spread of both consumer culture and human rights norms.
全球化是通过经济、文化和政治交流使世界日益相互联系的过程。它由通信、运输和贸易自由化的进步推动，并导致了消费文化和人权规范的双重传播。
Cultural hybridity describes the blending of elements from different cultures to create new, mixed forms. In a globalised world, food, music, and fashion often combine local and global influences, challenging the idea of pure or static cultures.
文化杂糅描述了来自不同文化的元素相互融合，创造出新的混合形式。在全球化的世界里，饮食、音乐和时尚常常结合地方与全球的影响，挑战了纯粹或静态文化的观念。
Social movement is an organised group of people striving for a common goal, such as civil rights, environmental protection, or gender equality. New social movements often rely on digital media to mobilise supporters and frame their demands.
社会运动是一群为共同目标（如民权、环境保护或性别平等）而奋斗的有组织的群体。新社会运动常常依赖数字媒体来动员支持者并构建他们的诉求。
Risk society (Beck) is a concept describing a society increasingly preoccupied with manufactured risks, such as climate change, nuclear accidents, and financial crises. These risks are often global in scope and less tangible than the risks of earlier periods.
风险社会（贝克）是一个概念，描述了一个日益关注人为风险的社会，这些风险包括气候变化、核事故和金融危机。这些风险往往具有全球性，且比早期时代的风险更不可触摸。
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