📚 Year 10 Cambridge Psychology: Key Theories & Laws Quick Reference | Year 10 剑桥心理学：核心理论与定律速查手册
This quick-reference handbook compiles the essential theoretical models, principles, and empirical laws encountered in Year 10 Cambridge IGCSE Psychology. Each entry is presented as a concise 'formula' or structural diagram that captures the heart of the concept, followed by a bilingual explanation to support revision and classroom learning. Use it to recall key studies, understand how memory works, why we conform, and what shapes development and mental health.
这本速查手册汇编了 Year 10 剑桥 IGCSE 心理学中遇到的核心理论模型、原则和经验定律。每个条目都以简明的“公式”或结构图展示概念的核心，并配有双语解释，以辅助复习和课堂学习。使用它来回忆关键研究，理解记忆如何运作，我们为何从众，以及什么塑造了发展和心理健康。
1. Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) | 记忆的多存储模型（阿特金森与谢弗林，1968）
The multi-store model proposes that memory consists of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows linearly through attention and rehearsal.
多存储模型提出，记忆由三个独立的存储系统组成：感觉记忆、短时记忆（STM）和长时记忆（LTM）。信息通过注意和复述以线性方式流动。
Sensory input → Sensory register (attention) → STM (rehearsal) → LTM
感觉输入 → 感觉登记（注意） → 短时记忆（复述） → 长时记忆
Without rehearsal, information in STM decays or is displaced; with elaborative rehearsal, it transfers to LTM for permanent storage.
没有复述，短时记忆中的信息会衰退或被替代；通过精细复述，信息将转入长时记忆进行永久储存。
2. Miller's Law: The Magic Number 7 ± 2 | 米勒定律：魔法数字7±2
George Miller (1956) demonstrated that the capacity of short-term memory is limited to about 7 items, but can be increased through chunking — grouping bits of information into meaningful units.
乔治·米勒（1956）证明，短时记忆的容量限制在约7个项目左右，但可以通过组块化——将信息片段组合成有意义的单元——来增加。
STM Capacity ≈ 7 ± 2 chunks
短时记忆容量 ≈ 7 ± 2 个组块
- Chunking transforms a string like 'IBMUCLBBC' into IBM, UCL, BBC — three chunks. 组块化将诸如'IBMUCLBBC'的字符串转化为IBM、UCL、BBC三个组块。
- Without chunking, we quickly overwhelm STM and lose information. 没有组块化，我们会迅速使短时记忆过载并丢失信息。
3. Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) studied memory for nonsense syllables and found that forgetting occurs rapidly after learning, then plateaus. The retention follows an exponential decay function.
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯（1885）研究了无意义音节的记忆，发现遗忘在学习后迅速发生，然后趋于平稳。保持量遵循指数衰减函数。
R(t) = 100 × 10⁻ᵏᵗ
R(t) = 100 × 10⁻ᵏᵗ（R为保留百分比，t为时间，k为遗忘速率）
The steep initial drop demonstrates that most forgetting occurs within the first hour; repeated rehearsal strengthens memory traces and slows decay.
最初的急剧下降表明，大部分遗忘发生在头一个小时内；重复复述能加强记忆痕迹并减缓衰退。
4. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) | 工作记忆模型（巴德利与希奇，1974）
The working memory model replaces the idea of a unitary STM with a multi-component system driven by a central executive that controls two slave systems — the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad — later added the episodic buffer.
工作记忆模型用一个由中央执行系统驱动的多成分系统取代了单一的短时记忆概念，该系统控制着两个从属系统——语音回路和视空间面板——后来增加了情景缓冲器。
Central Executive ⇌ Phonological Loop + Visuo-spatial Sketchpad + Episodic Buffer
中央执行系统 ⇌ 语音回路 + 视空间面板 + 情景缓冲器
Dual-task experiments support the model: participants can perform a verbal and a spatial task simultaneously with little interference, because they use different slave systems.
双任务实验支持该模型：参与者可以同时执行一个言语任务和一个空间任务且干扰很小，因为他们使用了不同的从属系统。
5. Asch's Conformity Effect | 阿希从众效应
Solomon Asch (1951) found that individuals often conform to a clearly incorrect group judgement. The average conformity rate across critical trials was approximately 37%, highlighting normative social influence.
所罗门·阿希（1951）发现，个体会经常服从一个明显错误的群体判断。关键试验中的平均从众率约为37%，凸显了规范社会影响。
Conformity increases with group size up to ∼3–5 confederates, then levels off.
从众随群体人数增加而上升，到大约3至5名同伙后趋于平稳。
- Unanimity is crucial: if one confederate dissents, conformity drops sharply. 一致性至关重要：只要有一名同伙提出异议，从众率便急剧下降。
- Task difficulty amplifies conformity — people rely more on the group when they are uncertain. 任务难度放大了从众行为——不确定时人们更依赖群体。
6. Milgram's Obedience Factors | 米尔格拉姆服从因素
Stanley Milgram (1963) showed that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure's order to deliver maximum shock. Obedience hinged on situational factors, not merely personality.
斯坦利·米尔格拉姆（1963）显示，65%的参与者服从了权威人物下达的施以最大电击的命令。服从取决于情境因素，而不仅仅是人格。
Base obedience rate ≈ 65% (450 V)
基础服从率 ≈ 65% (450 伏)
| Proximity of authority ↑ → obedience ↑ | 权威接近度增加 → 服从上升 |
| Proximity of victim ↑ → obedience ↓ | 受害者接近度增加 → 服从下降 |
| Prestige of institution ↑ → obedience ↑ | 机构声望提升 → 服从上升 |
| Peers rebel → obedience drops dramatically | 同伴反抗 → 服从急剧下降 |
7. Bystander Intervention Model (Latané & Darley) | 旁观者干预模型（拉塔内与达利）
The model explains that the likelihood of a bystander helping decreases as the number of bystanders increases, owing to diffusion of responsibility. The help probability can be approximated as an inverse function of bystander count.
该模型解释了，由于责任分散，旁观者提供帮助的可能性随旁观者数量的增加而降低。帮助概率可近似为旁观者人数的反比函数。
P(help) ≈ 1 / n, where n = number of bystanders
帮助概率 P ≈ 1 / n，n 为旁观者人数
The five-step decision tree – notice, interpret as emergency, assume responsibility, decide how to help, implement help – fails if any step is blocked by ambiguity or diffusion.
五步决策树——注意到、解释为紧急情况、承担责任、决定如何帮助、实施帮助——若任一步骤被模糊性或责任分散所阻，就会失败。
8. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through four invariant stages, each marked by distinct ways of thinking. Development is driven by assimilation and accommodation of schemas.
让·皮亚杰提出，儿童经历四个不变的阶段，每个阶段均以独特的思维方式为标志。发展由图式的同化和顺应驱动。
| Stage | Age (approx) | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor 感知运动 | 0–2 years | Object permanence 客体永久性 |
| Pre-operational 前运算 | 2–7 years | Egocentrism, centration 自我中心, 集中化 |
| Concrete operational 具体运算 | 7–11 years | Conservation, reversibility 守恒, 可逆性 |
| Formal operational 形式运算 | 11+ years | Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking 抽象推理, 假设性思维 |
Children who have not yet attained conservation will believe that liquid volume changes when poured into a differently shaped container — a classic finding replicated cross-culturally.
尚未获得守恒的儿童会相信，当液体倒入不同形状的容器时，其体积发生了变化——这是一项跨文化复制的经典发现。
9. Ainsworth's Attachment Styles | 安斯沃思依恋类型
Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation assessment categorises infant attachment into secure and insecure patterns. The distribution observed in middle-class US samples gives a baseline for understanding attachment quality.
玛丽·安斯沃思的陌生情境评估将婴儿依恋分为安全型和不安全型模式。在美国中产阶级样本中观察到的分布为理解依恋质量提供了基线。
Secure: ~70% | Insecure-avoidant: ~20% | Insecure-resistant: ~10%
安全型: ~70% | 不安全-回避型: ~20% | 不安全-矛盾型: ~10%
Sensitive responsiveness from the caregiver predicts secure attachment; inconsistent or rejecting care leads to avoidant or resistant patterns.
照料者的敏感回应性可预测安全依恋；不一致或拒绝性的照顾则导致回避型或矛盾型模式。
10. Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal and Performance | 耶克斯-多德森唤醒与表现定律
The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal up to an optimal point, after which further arousal impairs performance. The relationship forms an inverted U-shaped curve.
耶克斯-多德森定律指出，表现随着生理或心理唤醒水平的提高而上升，直至达到最优点，之后进一步唤醒则会损害表现。该关系形成一条倒U形曲线。
Performance = Peak − k × (Arousal − Optimum)²
表现 = 峰值 − k × (唤醒水平 − 最佳点)²
The optimum level of arousal is lower for difficult cognitive tasks and higher for simple or well-practiced tasks — known as the inverted-U shift.
对于困难的认知任务，最佳唤醒水平较低；对于简单或熟练的任务则较高——这被称为倒U曲线的偏移。
11. Beck's Cognitive Triad of Depression | 贝克的抑郁认知三角
Aaron Beck proposed that depression is maintained by a negative cognitive triad: pessimistic views of oneself, the world, and the future. These automatic thoughts lead to systematic cognitive distortions.
阿伦·贝克提出，抑郁症是由消极的认知三角维持的：对自己、世界和未来的悲观看法。这些自动思维导致系统的认知歪曲。
Negative view of Self + World + Future → Cognitive Distortions → Depression
消极的自我观 + 世界观 + 未来观 → 认知歪曲 → 抑郁
Common distortions include overgeneralisation, catastrophic thinking, and selective abstraction, all of which solidify the depressive cycle.
常见的歪曲包括过度泛化、灾难化思维和选择性抽象，这些都固化抑郁循环。
12. Bartlett's Theory of Reconstructive Memory | 巴特利特的重构记忆理论
Frederic Bartlett argued that memory is not a passive replay but an active reconstruction guided by schemas — mental frameworks shaped by culture and experience. Recall involves rebuilding the event rather than retrieving a fixed copy.
弗雷德里克·巴特利特认为，记忆不是被动的重放，而是由图式——受文化和经验塑造的心理框架——引导的
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