📚 Year 10 Cambridge Psychology: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | Year 10 Cambridge 心理学：关键术语速记指南
Mastering the specialised vocabulary of psychology is the first step towards thinking like a psychologist. This guide brings together the essential terms you will encounter in the Cambridge Year 10 specification, from research methods to social influence and memory. Each term is explained in clear English, followed by a Chinese translation and context example, so you can build a solid bilingual understanding for exams and further study.
掌握心理学的专业词汇是像心理学家一样思考的第一步。本指南汇总了你在剑桥 Year 10 课程中会遇到的核心术语，涵盖研究方法、社会影响与记忆等主题。每个术语都用清晰的英文解释，并配有中文翻译和情境例句，帮助你在备考和后续学习中建立扎实的双语理解。
1. Aims and Hypotheses | 研究目标与假设
An aim is a general statement of what a researcher intends to investigate. It describes the purpose of the study without making a specific prediction. For example, 'to explore the effect of background noise on concentration' is an aim.
研究目标（aim）是研究者打算探究的总体陈述，它描述研究目的而不作出具体预测。例如，“探究背景噪音对注意力的影响”就是一个目标。
A hypothesis is a precise, testable prediction about the expected outcome of a study. It must be written in terms of the variables being measured. An experimental hypothesis can be directional, predicting a specific difference or relationship, or non-directional, simply expecting a difference.
假设（hypothesis）是对研究预期结果的精确、可检验的预测，必须用所测量的变量来表述。实验假设可以是方向性的（预测具体的差异或关系），也可以是非方向性的（仅预计有差异）。
When writing a hypothesis, we use the statement: 'Participants who … will … compared to those who …'. A null hypothesis is also formulated, which states that there will be no difference or relationship.
写假设时常用句式：“在……条件下，被试会……，与……条件相比有差异”。此外还要建立零假设（null hypothesis），声明不存在任何差异或关系。
2. Independent Variable, Dependent Variable and Extraneous Variables | 自变量、因变量与额外变量
The independent variable (IV) is the factor that the researcher manipulates or changes to see if it has an effect. The dependent variable (DV) is the factor that is measured; it changes as a result of the IV. You can remember: IV is what you change, DV is what you measure.
自变量（IV）是研究者操作或改变的因素，看它是否产生效果。因变量（DV）则是测量的因素，它随自变量的变化而变化。可以这样记：自变量是“你改变的东西”，因变量是“你测量的东西”。
Extraneous variables (EV) are any variables other than the IV that might affect the DV. These must be controlled to make the experiment fair. Common EVs include participant variables (e.g. age, intelligence) and situational variables (e.g. noise, time of day). If an EV is not controlled, it becomes a confounding variable and can ruin the internal validity of the study.
额外变量（EV）是除了自变量外，可能影响因变量的任何因素，必须加以控制，以保证实验的公平性。常见的额外变量包括被试变量（如年龄、智力）和情境变量（如噪音、时段）。如果额外变量未受控，就会变成混淆变量，破坏研究的内部效度。
Researchers use standardisation, random allocation and counterbalancing to minimise extraneous variables.
研究者采用标准化程序、随机分配和平衡法来降低额外变量的影响。
3. Experimental Designs: Independent Groups, Repeated Measures and Matched Pairs | 实验设计：独立组、重复测量与匹配对
In independent groups design, different participants are used in each condition of the experiment. The main advantage is no order effects, but participant variables may differ between groups unless random allocation is used.
独立组设计（independent groups design）中，每个实验条件使用不同的被试。主要优点是没有顺序效应，但如果不进行随机分配，各组间的被试变量可能会不同。
In repeated measures design, the same participants take part in all conditions. This eliminates participant variables, but order effects such as practice or fatigue can occur. Counterbalancing – where half the participants experience condition A first and half condition B first – helps control these effects.
重复测量设计（repeated measures design）中，同一批被试参与所有条件。这消除了被试变量，但可能出现练习效应或疲劳等顺序效应。可以采用平衡法——一半被试先做条件A，另一半先做条件B——来控制这些效应。
Matched pairs design uses different participants in each condition, but they are first paired on a relevant characteristic (e.g. IQ score, age). This design reduces participant variables while avoiding order effects, but matching itself can be time-consuming and not perfectly identical.
匹配对设计（matched pairs design）在每个条件使用不同的被试，但先根据相关特征（如智商、年龄）进行配对。这既减少被试变量，又避免顺序效应，但匹配过程耗时且难以做到完全等同。
4. Sampling Methods: Opportunity, Random, Volunteer and Systematic | 抽样方法：机会取样、随机取样、志愿者取样与系统取样
An opportunity sample selects participants who are readily available at the time of the study, such as students walking through the library at lunchtime. This is convenient but may be unrepresentative of the target population.
机会取样（opportunity sample）选取在研究时方便找到的被试，例如在午餐时间路过图书馆的学生。这种方法便捷，但可能无法代表目标总体。
A random sample gives every member of the target population an equal chance of being selected, for instance by drawing names from a hat. It reduces researcher bias, but achieving a truly random list is difficult and not all selected participants may agree to take part.
随机取样（random sample）让目标总体中的每一位成员都有均等机会被选中，比如从帽子中抽签。这能减少研究者偏差，但获得真正随机的名单有难度，且被选中的参与者不一定都同意参与。
In volunteer sampling (also called self-selected sampling), individuals volunteer after seeing an advertisement. This gathers motivated participants, but the sample may be biased because volunteers tend to have certain personality traits.
志愿者取样（volunteer sampling，也称自选取样）中，个体看到广告后自愿报名。这能收集到积极性高的被试，但样本可能有偏差，因为志愿者往往具有特定人格特征。
Systematic sampling selects every nth person from a list of the population. It is simple and spreads the selection evenly, but there remains an element of bias if the list has an inherent order.
系统取样（systematic sampling）从总体名单中每隔n个人选一个。方法简单且能均匀分布，但如果名单本身有内在顺序，仍可能存在偏差。
5. Ethical Guidelines: Consent, Deception, Confidentiality and Debriefing | 伦理准则：同意、欺骗、保密与事后解释
Psychological research must follow ethical principles to protect participants. Informed consent means participants must be given full information about the nature of the study and what it will involve, and must voluntarily agree to take part. Consent can be obtained from parents or guardians for participants under 16.
心理学研究必须遵循伦理原则以保护参与者。知情同意（informed consent）意味着必须向参与者完整说明研究的性质和内容，并在其自愿同意下方可进行。未满16岁的参与者需获得家长或监护人的同意。
Deception, deliberately misleading or withholding information, should be avoided. However, sometimes a minor amount of deception is necessary so that participants behave naturally; in such cases, a full debrief after the study is essential to reveal the true aims and allow withdrawal of data.
欺骗（deception）指故意误导或隐瞒信息，应当避免。但有时为了确保参与者表现自然，轻微欺骗不可避免；这种情况下，研究后必须进行全面的事后解释（debriefing），告知真实目的并允许参与者撤回数据。
Confidentiality means that personal data is not shared in a way that identifies individuals; often participants are referred to by code numbers. Protection from harm is also vital: psychological or physical harm must be no greater than what they encounter in everyday life.
保密（confidentiality）是指个人数据不会以能识别身份的方式被分享，参与者通常用编号称呼。免受伤害同样至关重要：心理或身体伤害不得超过日常生活水平。
6. Memory: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval | 记忆：编码、储存与提取
Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved. Encoding is the transformation of sensory input into a form that can be placed into memory. For example, visual encoding changes an image into a mental picture.
记忆是对信息进行编码、储存和提取的过程。编码（encoding）是将感官输入转换成可以放入记忆的形式。例如，视觉编码将图像转化为心像。
y brief, iconic and echoic), short-term memory (limited capacity of about 7±2 items, duration up to 30 seconds) and long-term memory (potentially unlimited capacity and duration).
储存（storage）是随时间维持已编码信息。根据多贮存模型，记忆有三个贮存：感觉记忆（极短暂，包括图像记忆和声象记忆）、短时记忆（容量约7±2组块，持续时间不超过30秒）和长时记忆（容量和时长都可能无限）。
Retrieval is the recovery of stored information. Recall (e.g. writing an answer from memory) is more difficult than recognition (e.g. picking the correct answer from options) because retrieval cues are absent in free recall. The context in which the information was learnt can act as a powerful retrieval cue – this is context-dependent memory.
提取（retrieval）是恢复已储存信息。回忆（如凭记忆写出答案）比再认（如从选项中选出正确答案）更难，因为自由回忆时缺乏提取线索。信息学习时的情境可以成为强有力的提取线索，这被称为情境依赖记忆。
7. Forgetting: Interference, Retrieval Failure and Amnesia | 遗忘：干扰、提取失败和遗忘症
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve previously stored information. One explanation is interference, where similar information gets mixed up. Proactive interference occurs when old learning disrupts the recall of new information; retroactive interference happens when new learning disrupts the recall of old information.
遗忘（forgetting）是指无法提取先前储存的信息。一种解释是干扰（interference），即相似信息相互混淆。前摄干扰（proactive interference）指旧学习干扰新信息的回忆；倒摄干扰（retroactive interference）指新学习干扰旧信息的回忆。
Retrieval failure suggests that information is available in memory but cannot be accessed because of insufficient cues. This is often experienced as 'tip of the tongue' state. A change in environment between learning and recall (context cues) or a change in internal state (state-dependent memory) can cause retrieval failure.
提取失败（retrieval failure）理论认为信息仍然在记忆中，但由于线索不足无法提取。这常表现为“话到嘴边”现象。学习和回忆时的环境变化（情境线索）或内部状态变化（状态依赖记忆）都可能导致提取失败。
Amnesia is a clinical loss of memory, often after brain injury. Retrograde amnesia involves losing memories from before the trauma; anterograde amnesia involves an inability to form new memories after the trauma. Case studies like HM have greatly contributed to our understanding of these conditions.
遗忘症（amnesia）是一种临床上记忆丧失，常发生在脑损伤后。逆行性遗忘症（retrograde amnesia）指丧失创伤前的记忆；顺行性遗忘症（anterograde amnesia）指无法在创伤后形成新记忆。像HM这样的案例研究极大地促进了我们对这些情况的认识。
8. Perception: Sensation, Perceptual Set and Illusions | 感知：感觉、知觉定势与错觉
Sensation is the detection of physical energy by our sense organs and the transmission of this information to the brain. Perception is the active process of organising and interpreting this sensory input, giving it meaning.
感觉（sensation）是我们的感觉器官检测物理能量，并将信息传送到大脑的过程。知觉（perception）则是组织和解释这些感觉输入的主动过程，赋予其意义。
Perceptual set refers to the tendency to perceive stimuli in certain ways based on expectations, past experiences, motivation or emotion. Bruner and Minturn (1955) demonstrated that when an ambiguous figure could be seen as a letter or a number, prior exposure to letters or numbers biased interpretation.
知觉定势（perceptual set）指基于期望、过往经验、动机或情绪而以特定方式感知刺激的倾向。布鲁纳和明特恩（1955）的研究表明，当一个模棱两可图形可以被看作是字母或数字时，事先接触字母或数字会偏向后续解释。
Visual illusions are misperceptions where the physical reality differs from the perceptual experience. The Müller-Lyer illusion shows that we interpret lines with inward or outward fins as being different lengths, which is influenced by experience with corners and edges in built environments. Illusions illustrate how perception is a construction of the brain, not a perfect copy of reality.
视错觉（visual illusions）是物理现实与知觉体验不一致的错误感知。缪勒-莱尔错觉显示，我们会把带有内向或外向羽翼的线条视为长度不同，这受到在建筑环境中对角落和边缘经验的影响。错觉说明知觉是大脑的建构，而不是现实的完美复制。
9. Social Influence: Conformity, Obedience and Compliance | 社会影响：从众、服从与顺从
Conformity is the change in a person's behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined group pressure. Asch's (1951) line study showed that participants conformed to an obviously wrong majority judgment on about one-third of critical trials, demonstrating normative social influence – the desire to fit in.
从众（conformity）是由于真实或想象的群体压力而改变个体行为或意见的现象。阿希（1951）的线段研究显示，在约三分之一的批判性试次中，参与者会遵从明显错误的大多数判断，这体现了规范社会影响——渴望融入群体。
Obedience involves following a direct order from an authority figure. Milgram's (1963) electric shock experiment revealed that 65% of participants administered what they believed to be a dangerous 450-volt shock when ordered by an authority figure. Situational factors, such as proximity of the authority and prestige of the setting, greatly affect obedience levels.
服从（obedience）指听从权威人物的直接命令。米尔格拉姆（1963）的电击实验发现，65% 的参与者在权威人物命令下，愿意施加他们以为是危险的 450 伏特电击。权威的接近程度、环境的声望等情境因素极大地影响服从水平。
Compliance is a superficial type of social influence where an individual goes along with a request but privately disagrees. Techniques like foot-in-the-door (small request first, then larger request) are used to gain compliance.
顺从（compliance）是一种表层的社会影响类型，个体表面上答应请求但私下并不认同。登门槛技巧（先提出小要求，再提出大要求）等就是用来获得顺从的策略。
10. Data Collection: Questionnaires, Interviews and Observations | 数据收集：问卷、访谈与观察
Questionnaires are written sets of questions used to gather self-report data. They can include closed questions (e.g. yes/no, rating scales) that produce quantitative data easy to analyse, and open questions that yield qualitative, detailed answers. A key issue is social desirability bias – participants may answer in a way that makes them look good rather than being truthful.
问卷（questionnaires）是用来收集自陈数据的一套书面问题。可以包括封闭式问题（如是否回答、评分量表），这类问题产生易分析的量化数据；也可以有开放式问题，得到质性、深入的回答。一个关键问题是社会赞许性偏差——参与者可能为了显得好而不是说真话而回答。
Interviews can be structured (with a fixed set of questions), unstructured (free-flowing, like a conversation) or semi-structured (a combination). Interviews allow researchers to clarify meanings and follow up on interesting points, but they are time-consuming and interviewer effects may bias responses.
访谈（interviews）可以是结构式（固定问题集）、非结构式（自由流动，如对话）或半结构式（二者结合）。访谈允许研究者澄清含义并追踪有趣的观点，但耗时且访谈者效应可能使回答产生偏差。
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour. They can be overt (participants know they are being watched) or covert (secret), and participant (the researcher joins the group) or non-participant. Naturalistic observation happens in the participants’ own environment, increasing ecological validity, while controlled observation takes place in a lab setting.
观察（observations）涉及观看并记录行为。可分为公开观察（参与者知道被观察）或隐蔽观察（暗中进行），以及参与观察（研究者加入团体）或非参与观察。自然观察发生在参与者自己的环境中，增加生态效度；而控制观察则在实验室环境中进行。
11. Reliability and Validity | 信度与效度
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. If the same test gives similar results on two occasions (test-retest reliability) or if two observers score behaviour similarly (inter-rater reliability), the measure is considered reliable. Standardised procedures and clear coding systems improve reliability.
信度（reliability）指测量的一致性。如果同一测试在两次施测中得到相似结果（重测信度），或者两位观察者对行为打分相似（观察者间信度），该测量就被认为是可信的。标准化程序与清晰的编码系统能提高信度。
Validity is about whether the study measures what it claims to measure. Internal validity asks whether the IV genuinely caused the change in the DV, free from confounding variables. External validity, such as ecological validity, questions whether findings can be generalised to real-world settings. Qualitative data often improves validity because it captures depth and meaning.
效度（validity）指研究是否测量了它声称要测量的东西。内部效度问的是自变量是否真的引起了因变量的变化，而不受混淆变量干扰。外部效度，如生态效度，质疑结果能否推广到真实世界。质性数据通常能提高效度，因为它捕捉了深度和意义。
12. Correlational Studies vs. Experiments | 相关研究与实验研究
An experiment involves the direct manipulation of an IV to observe its effect on the DV, allowing cause-and-effect conclusions to be drawn. In contrast, a correlational study measures two or more variables without manipulation, exploring relationships between them. The strength and direction of a relationship is expressed by the correlation coefficient, ranging from -1 (perfect negative) to +1 (perfect positive).
实验（experiment）涉及直接操纵自变量以观察其对因变量的影响，因而能够得出因果关系结论。相反，相关研究（correlational study）不进行操纵，仅测量两个或多个变量，探索它们之间的关系。关系的强度和方向用相关系数表示，范围从-1（完全负相关）到+1（完全正相关）。
It is crucial to remember that correlation does not imply causation. A positive correlation between ice cream sales and drowning rates does not mean ice cream causes drowning; a third variable, hot weather, explains both. Correlational studies are useful when manipulation would be unethical or impractical, but they cannot establish cause.
必须牢记相关不等于因果。冰淇淋销量与溺水率呈正相关，并不意味着冰淇淋导致溺水；第三个变量——炎热的天气——同时解释了二者。当操纵不道德或不现实时，相关研究很有用，但不能确定因果关系。
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