📚 Core Concepts in Cambridge Year 10 Psychology | 剑桥十年级心理学核心知识点梳理
Welcome to this comprehensive revision guide for Year 10 Cambridge Psychology. Here we summarise the key topics you need to master, from research methods to biological psychology. Each section presents the essential knowledge in clear, bilingual format.
欢迎阅读这份剑桥十年级心理学核心知识点梳理。本文总结了从研究方法到生物心理学的关键主题，每部分都以清晰的双语形式呈现必备知识。
1. Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods | 心理学与研究方法导论
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour. In the Cambridge IGCSE course, you learn to apply the scientific method to understand human thoughts, emotions and actions. A key starting point is understanding how psychologists design research, collect data and draw conclusions.
心理学是对心智与行为的科学研究。在剑桥 IGCSE 课程中，你将学习运用科学方法来理解人的思维、情绪与行为。一个关键的起点是了解心理学家如何设计研究、收集数据并得出结论。
Researchers use experiments to establish cause and effect relationships. An independent variable (IV) is manipulated, and the dependent variable (DV) is measured. All other variables must be controlled to avoid confounding results. For example, a study on the effect of background music on memory would manipulate the presence or type of music (IV) and measure the number of words recalled (DV).
研究者通过实验来确定因果关系。自变量(IV)被操纵，因变量(DV)被测量。所有其他变量必须控制以避免混淆结果。例如，一项研究背景音乐对记忆影响的实验会操纵音乐的存在或类型（自变量），并测量记住的单词数量（因变量）。
Other research methods include observations, questionnaires and interviews. Observations can be naturalistic or controlled, and they generate qualitative or quantitative data. Questionnaires and interviews collect self-report data, which may be affected by social desirability bias. Ethical guidelines, such as informed consent, confidentiality and protection from harm, must always be followed.
其他研究方法包括观察、问卷和访谈。观察可以是自然观察或控制观察，产生定性或定量数据。问卷和访谈收集自我报告数据，可能受社会赞许性偏差影响。必须始终遵循伦理准则，如知情同意、保密和免受伤害。
Reliability refers to whether a study can be repeated with consistent results, while validity concerns whether it truly measures what it claims. Standardised procedures improve reliability, and controls enhance internal validity.
信度指研究能否被重复且结果一致，效度则指研究是否确实测量了其声称要测量的内容。标准化程序提高信度，控制措施提升内部效度。
2. Memory: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval | 记忆：编码、存储与提取
The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) describes three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information passes through these stores via attention and rehearsal.
记忆的多重储存模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968）描述了三个独立的储存库：感觉记忆、短时记忆和长时记忆。信息通过注意和复述在这些储存库之间传递。
it enters STM. STM has a limited capacity of about 7±2 chunks and a duration of around 15– and transfers it to LTM, which has potentially unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime.
感觉记忆能在极短时间（不足一秒）内保留大量感觉信息。如果我们注意到某些信息，它便进入短时记忆。短时记忆的容量有限，约为7±2个组块，持续时间约15–30秒，除非进行复述。复述能使信息保持活跃并将其转入长时记忆，长时记忆的容量可能无限，能持续一生。
LTM is divided into different types: episodic (personal events), semantic (facts and knowledge) and procedural (skills and actions). Understanding these distinctions helps explain why someone may lose knowledge of events but still be able to ride a bike.
长时记忆分为不同类型：情景记忆（个人事件）、语义记忆（事实与知识）和程序性记忆（技能与动作）。理解这些区别有助于解释为何有人可能失去对事件的记忆却仍会骑自行车。
3. Memory: Forgetting and Eyewitness Testimony | 遗忘与目击者证词
Forgetting can occur due to interference, where old or new information disrupts recall. Proactive interference happens when older memories interfere with new ones, while retroactive interference occurs when new information disrupts older memories.
遗忘可能由干扰引起，即旧信息或新信息干扰了提取。前摄干扰指旧记忆干扰新信息，倒摄干扰指新信息干扰旧记忆。
Context-dependent memory shows that recall is better when the environment during retrieval matches the environment during encoding. For example, students who learn information underwater recall it better underwater than on land (Godden and Baddeley, 1975).
情境依赖记忆表明，当提取时的环境与编码时的环境一致时，回忆效果更好。例如，在水中学习信息的学生在水下比在陆地上回忆得更好（Godden & Baddeley, 1975）。
Eyewitness testimony research highlights how easily memory can be distorted. Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated that the wording of a question, such as using 'smashed' instead of 'contacted', can alter a witness's memory of a car accident. Misleading post-event information creates false memories, raising serious concerns about the reliability of eyewitness evidence in court.
目击者证词研究凸显了记忆是多么容易被扭曲。Loftus & Palmer (1974) 证明，提问的措辞（如用 'smashed' 替代 'contacted'）能改变目击者对交通事故的记忆。误导性事后信息会产生虚假记忆，这引发了对法庭上目击证词可靠性的严重担忧。
4. Perception: Visual Perception and Illusions | 感知：视觉感知与错觉
Perception is the brain's interpretation of sensory information. Visual perception is not a direct copy of the external world; it is actively constructed. This is demonstrated by visual illusions, where what we see does not match physical reality.
感知是大脑对感觉信息的解释。视觉感知并不是外部世界的直接复制，而是主动建构的。视错觉就证明了这一点：我们看到的东西与物理现实不符。
The Ponzo illusion occurs when two identical horizontal lines appear different in length because of converging lines in the background that suggest depth. The Müller-Lyer illusion features two lines of equal length with different arrowheads, where one appears longer due to misinterpreted depth cues. These illusions support the idea that we use cues to perceive size and distance, and these cues can be misapplied.
庞佐错觉中，两条相同的水平线因背景中汇聚的线条暗示深度而显得长度不同。缪勒-莱耶错觉呈现两条长度相等但箭头方向不同的线段，由于深度线索被误用，其中一条显得更长。这些错觉印证了我们会借助线索来感知大小和距离，而这些线索可能被错误应用。
Gregory's constructivist theory argues that the brain makes inferences based on past experience and expectations, sometimes leading to errors. Gibson's direct theory, by contrast, emphasises that the environment provides sufficient information (optic array) for accurate perception without interpretation.
Gregory 的建构主义理论认为，大脑基于过往经验和期望进行推断，这有时会导致错误。而 Gibson 的直接理论则强调，环境提供了充足的信息（光阵），无需解释即可准确感知。
5. Factors Affecting Perception | 影响感知的因素
Expectation, or perceptual set, influences what we perceive. For example, if you are told an ambiguous picture is a duck, you are more likely to see a duck rather than a rabbit. Bruner and Minturn (1955) showed that context primes interpretation; a figure that could be a 'B' or '13' was perceived differently depending on whether it was surrounded by letters or numbers.
期望（或知觉定势）会影响我们感知的内容。例如，如果你被告知一幅模棱两可的图画是鸭子，你更可能看到鸭子而非兔子。Bruner & Minturn (1955) 证明情境会启动特定解释；一个可以是 'B' 或 '13' 的图形，在字母或数字的包围下被感知不同。
Culture also shapes perception. Research by Segall et al. (1966) found that people from different cultures varied in susceptibility to the Müller-Lyer illusion, possibly because carpentered environments with many right angles alter depth cue processing. Similarly, emotion and motivation can affect perception; hungry individuals may perceive food-related words more quickly.
文化也会塑造感知。Segall 等人（1966）的研究发现，不同文化背景的人对缪勒-莱耶错觉的敏感度不同，这或许是因为多直角的人工环境改变了深度线索的处理。同样，情绪和动机也能影响感知；饥饿的人可能会更快地识别与食物相关的词汇。
6. Development: Attachment | 发展：依恋
Attachment is a deep emotional bond between an infant and caregiver, crucial for survival. Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation states that a warm, continuous relationship with a mother or mother-substitute is essential for mental health. He proposed that attachment is innate and that infants develop an internal working model of relationships.
依恋是婴儿与照
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