📚 Key Science Terminology for Year 11 WJEC | Year 11 WJEC 科学核心术语速记指南
Mastering precise scientific vocabulary is one of the most effective ways to boost your confidence and marks in the WJEC Year 11 Science exam. This bilingual guide walks you through the most important terms from Physics, Chemistry and Biology, giving you a clear definition in English followed by a matching Chinese explanation. Use it for quick revision, self‑testing or as a lesson companion. Every term has been selected to match the demands of the WJEC Double Award and Separate Science specifications.
掌握准确的科学词汇是提高 WJEC 十一年级科学考试信心和成绩最有效的方法之一。这份双语指南带你梳理物理、化学和生物最重要的术语，先用英文给出清晰定义，再附上对应的中文解释。你可以用它快速复习、自测或作为课堂伴侣。每个术语都根据 WJEC 双奖科学和单科科学大纲精心挑选。
1. Scientific Investigation & Variables | 科学探究与变量
A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the outcome of an experiment, often written as an "If... then..." statement. It must be falsifiable and based on prior scientific knowledge.
假设是对实验结果的一种可检验预测，常写成 "如果……那么……" 的陈述。它必须是可被证伪的，且基于先前的科学知识。
The independent variable (IV) is the factor that is deliberately changed or selected by the investigator. The dependent variable (DV) is the factor that is measured or observed; it changes in response to the IV.
自变量 (IV) 是研究者故意改变或选择的因素。因变量 (DV) 是被测量或观察的因素，它响应自变量的变化而变化。
Control variables are all the other factors that must be kept constant to ensure a fair test. If they are not controlled, they could influence the dependent variable and lead to invalid conclusions.
控制变量是所有其他必须保持不变的因素，以确保公平测试。如果它们不被控制，可能会影响因变量并导致无效结论。
Precision describes how close repeated measurements are to each other, while accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value. A set of data can be precise but not accurate if there is a systematic error.
精密度描述的是重复测量值彼此之间的接近程度，而准确度指的是测量值接近真实值的程度。如果存在系统误差，一组数据可能精密度高但准确度低。
Repeatability means that the same person using the same equipment obtains similar results in the same lab. Reproducibility means a different person using a different method gets comparable results.
可重复性意味着同一个人使用同一设备在同一实验室获得相似结果。可再现性则是不同的人使用不同方法也能获得可比结果。
2. Cells & Microscopy | 细胞与显微技术
All living organisms are made of cells. Eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi) have a membrane‑bound nucleus, while prokaryotic cells (bacteria) do not. The cell membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell.
所有生物都由细胞构成。真核细胞（植物、动物、真菌）有膜包被的细胞核，而原核细胞（细菌）没有。细胞膜控制物质的进出。
The nucleus contains the genetic material (DNA) and controls the cell's activities. The cytoplasm is a jelly‑like substance where most chemical reactions take place, and mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration, releasing energy.
细胞核含有遗传物质 (DNA) 并控制细胞活动。细胞质是果冻状物质，大多数化学反应在此进行，线粒体是有氧呼吸的场所，释放能量。
Ribosomes are tiny structures that make proteins by assembling amino acids in a specific order. Plant cells also have a rigid cellulose cell wall, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
核糖体是微小结构，通过按特定顺序组装氨基酸来制造蛋白质。植物细胞还有坚硬的纤维素细胞壁、一个永久大液泡和进行光合作用的叶绿体。
Magnification tells you how much larger an image is compared to the real object. The calculation is:
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size (M = I / A)
放大倍数告诉你图像比实物大多少。计算公式为：
放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小 (M = I / A)
Specialised cells are adapted to carry out a particular function. For example, a sperm cell has a long tail for swimming and many mitochondria for energy; a red blood cell has no nucleus to make more room for haemoglobin.
特化细胞是为了执行特定功能而适应形成的。例如，精子有长长的尾巴用于游动和大量线粒体提供能量；红细胞没有细胞核，为血红蛋白腾出更多空间。
3. Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table | 原子结构与周期表
An atom consists of a tiny central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons arranged in shells. Protons carry a positive charge (+1), electrons a negative charge (−1), and neutrons have no charge.
原子由一个微小的中央原子核组成，核内有质子和中子，核外有分层排布的电子。质子带正电荷 (+1)，电子带负电荷 (−1)，中子不带电。
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom and defines the element. The mass number is the total number of protons plus neutrons. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons.
原子序数是原子中的质子数，它决定了元素的种类。质量数是质子数与中子数的总和。在中性原子中，电子数等于质子数。
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. They have identical chemical properties but different physical masses, e.g. Carbon‑12 and Carbon‑14.
同位素是同一元素中质子数相同但中子数不同的原子。它们化学性质相同但物理质量不同，例如碳‑12 和碳‑14。
When an atom gains or loses electrons it becomes an ion. A loss of electrons forms a positive ion (cation), e.g. Na⁺; a gain of electrons forms a negative ion (anion), e.g. Cl⁻.
当原子得到或失去电子时就成为离子。失去电子形成正离子（阳离子），如 Na⁺；得到电子形成负离子（阴离子），如 Cl⁻。
In the Periodic Table, a group is a vertical column; elements in the same group have the same number of outer‑shell electrons and similar chemical behaviour. A period is a horizontal row, where properties change gradually.
在周期表中，族是垂直列；同一族的元素具有相同的最外层电子数，化学性质相似。周期是水平行，性质逐渐变化。
Group 1 alkali metals are soft, highly reactive metals that form 1+ ions. Group 7 halogens are reactive non‑metals that form 1− ions. Group 0 (8) noble gases are unreactive because they have a full outer shell of electrons.
第 1 族碱金属是质软、反应性极强的金属，形成 1+ 离子。第 7 族卤素是活泼的非金属，形成 1− 离子。第 0 (8) 族稀有气体因具有满壳层电子结构而不活泼。
4. Bonding, Structure & Properties | 化学键、结构与性质
Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred from a metal atom to a non‑metal atom, resulting in positive and negative ions held together by strong electrostatic forces in a giant ionic lattice. Ionic compounds have high melting points and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved.
离子键发生在电子从金属原子转移到非金属原子时，产生的正负离子通过强静电引力在巨型离子晶格中结合在一起。离子化合物具有高熔点，熔融或溶于水时能导电。
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electron pairs between non‑metal atoms. Simple molecular substances like H₂O and CO₂ have low boiling points because the intermolecular forces are weak, even though the covalent bonds within molecules are strong.
共价键涉及非金属原子之间共享电子对。简单的分子物质如 H₂O 和 CO₂ 沸点低，因为分子间作用力弱，尽管分子内的共价键很强。
Giant covalent structures, such as diamond and silicon dioxide (SiO₂), have millions of atoms joined by strong covalent bonds, giving them very high melting points and hardness. Graphite is another allotrope of carbon; each carbon atom forms three covalent bonds, creating layers that can slide over each other, making graphite slippery and an electrical conductor due to delocalised electrons.
巨型共价结构，如金刚石和二氧化硅 (SiO₂)，有数以百万计的原子通过强共价键连接，导致极高的熔点和硬度。石墨是碳的另一种同素异形体；每个碳原子形成三个共价键，形成可以相对滑动的层，因此石墨既滑腻又能因离域电子而导电。
Metallic bonding is the attraction between a lattice of positive metal ions and a sea of delocalised electrons. This structure allows metals to conduct heat and electricity, and to be malleable and ductile. Alloys are mixtures of metals that disrupt the regular layers, making them harder.
金属键是正金属离子晶格与离域电子海之间的吸引力。这种结构使金属能够导热、导电，并具有延展性和可锻性。合金是金属的混合物，打乱了规则的层状结构，从而变得更硬。
5. Energy Changes & Electricity | 能量变化与电
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or stored – the principle of conservation of energy. Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of a moving object, given by:
KE = ½ m v²
where m is mass (kg) and v is speed (m/s). Gravitational potential energy (GPE) depends on mass, gravitational field strength and height:
GPE = m g h
能量不能被创造或消灭，只能转移或储存——能量守恒原理。动能 (KE) 是运动物体的能量，公式为：
KE = ½ m v²
其中 m 为质量 (kg)，v 为速度 (m/s)。重力势能 (GPE) 取决于质量、重力场强度和高度：
GPE = m g h
Efficiency is the proportion of input energy or power that is usefully transferred:
Efficiency = useful output ÷ total input (× 100% for percentage)
效率是指输入能量或功率中有用输出的比例：
效率 = 有用输出 ÷ 总输入 (× 100%得到百分比)
In electricity, current (I, unit A) is the rate of flow of charge. Voltage (p.d., V) is the energy transferred per unit charge. Resistance (R, Ω) measures how difficult it is for current to flow. Ohm's law states:
V = I × R
在电学中，电流 (I, 单位 A) 是电荷流动的速率。电压 (电位差, V) 是每单位电荷转移的能量。电阻 (R, Ω) 衡量电流流动的难易程度。欧姆定律为：
V = I × R
wer (P, unit W) is the rate at which energy is transferred: P = E / t or P = V × I. A high‑resistance component gets hot as energy is dissipated to the thermal store.
功率 (P, 单位 W) 是能量转移的速率：P = E / t 或 P = V × I。高电阻元件会变热，因为能量耗散到了热储存中。
6. Forces & Motion | 力与运动
Scalar quantities have magnitude only, e.g. speed, distance, mass. Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction, e.g. velocity, displacement, force, acceleration. Understanding the difference is vital when calculating resultant forces.
标量只有大小，如速率、路程、质量。矢量既有大小又有方向，如速度、位移、力、加速度。在计算合力时，理解这一区别至关重要。
Speed is the rate of change of distance; velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Acceleration (a) is the rate of change of velocity. The equation linking initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a) and time (t) is:
a = (v − u) / t
速率是路程的变化率；速度是位移的变化率。加速度 (a) 是速度的变化率。初速度 (u)、末速度 (v)、加速度 (a) 和时间 (t) 的关系式为：
a = (v − u) / t
Newton's First Law states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant force. Newton's Second Law links resultant force, mass and acceleration:
F = m a
牛顿第一定律指出，除非受到合力作用，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动。牛顿第二定律将合力、质量和加速度联系在一起：
F = m a
Stopping distance is the sum of thinking distance (distance travelled during the driver's reaction time) and braking distance (distance travelled while brakes are applied). Factors such as tiredness, alcohol, speed and road conditions affect it.
停车距离是思考距离（司机反应时间内行驶的距离）与刹车距离（刹车后行驶的距离）之和。疲劳、酒精、速度和路面状况等因素都会影响停车距离。
Velocity– ent. A horizontal line means constant velocity, a sloping straight line means constant acceleration.
速度‑时间图中，斜率表示加速度，图下面积表示位移。水平线意味着匀速，倾斜直线代表匀加速。
7. Waves & the Electromagnetic Spectrum | 波与电磁波谱
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. In a transverse wave (e.g. light, water waves), oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer. In a longitudinal wave (e.g. sound), oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer, creating compressions and rarefactions.
波传递能量而不传递物质。在横波（如光波、水波）中，振动方向与能量传递方向垂直。在纵波（如声波）中，振动方向与能量传递方向平行，产生疏部和密部。
Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position. Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two consecutive corresponding points on a wave. Frequency (f) is the number of complete waves passing a point per second, measured in hertz (Hz). The wave equation is:
v = f λ
振幅是离平衡位置的最大位移。波长 (λ) 是波上两个相邻对应点之间的距离。频率 (f) 是每秒通过某点的完整波数，单位是赫兹 (Hz)。波动方程为：
v = f λ
Reflection is the bouncing back of a wave from a surface; the angle of incidence equals the angle of refraction? Correction: angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction is the change in direction of a wave as it enters a different medium at an angle, caused by a change in speed.
反射指波从表面反弹回来；入射角等于反射角。折射是波以一定角度进入不同介质时，由于速度改变而发生的方向改变。
⁸ m/s) but have different wavelengths and frequencies. In order of decreasing wavelength (increasing frequency): radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X‑rays, gamma rays. Each region has different uses and dangers.
电磁波谱是一个连续的波族，真空中波速相同 (3 × 10⁸ m/s)，但波长和频率各异。按波长递减（频率递增）顺序为：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线、伽马射线。不同波段有不同的用途和危害。
Radio waves are used for communications; microwaves for cooking and satellite signals; infrared for thermal imaging; visible light for sight; ultraviolet for sunbeds and detecting forged banknotes; X‑rays for medical imaging; gamma rays for sterilising equipment and cancer treatment.
无线电波用于通信；微波用于烹饪和卫星信号；红外线用于热成像和遥控器；可见光用于视觉；紫外线用于日光浴和伪钞检测；X 射线用于医学影像；伽马射线用于设备消毒和癌症治疗。
8. Inheritance, Variation & Evolution | 遗传、变异与进化
DNA is a polymer made of two strands twisted into a double helix. A gene is a small section of DNA that codes for a particular protein. Chromosomes are long, coiled‑up molecules of DNA found in the nucleus.
DNA 是由两条链盘旋成双螺旋的聚合物。基因是 DNA 的一个小片段，编码特定的蛋白质。染色体是细胞核中缠绕紧密的长链 DNA 分子。
Alleles are different versions of the same gene. For a characteristic, an individual inherits two alleles, one from each parent. A dominant allele is expressed even if only one copy is present; a recessive allele is only expressed if both copies are present.
等位基因是同一基因的不同版本。就某一性状而言，个体从父母各继承一个等位基因。显性等位基因只要有一个拷贝就会表达；隐性等位基因只有在两个拷贝都存在时才表达。
Homozygous means having two identical alleles for a trait (e.g. BB or bb). Heterozygous means having two different alleles (e.g. Bb). The genotype is the combination of alleles an organism possesses; the phenotype is the observable characteristic.
纯合子指的是某一性状有两个相同的等位基因（如 BB 或 bb）。杂合子的两个等位基因不同（如 Bb）。基因型是生物体拥有的等位基因组合；表型是可观察的特征。
Variation within a species can be caused by genetic differences, environmental factors, or a combination. Mutations are random changes in DNA and can introduce new alleles; most have no effect, but some can be harmful or beneficial.
物种内的变异可由遗传差异、环境因素或两者的结合引起。突变是 DNA 随机的改变，能引入新的等位基因；多数无影响，但有些可能有害或有益。
Natural selection is the process where organisms better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous alleles. Over many generations, this leads to evolution – a change in the inherited characteristics of a population.
自然选择是指更适应环境的生物更有可能生存和繁殖，将有利等位基因传递给后代。经过许多代，这导致进化——种群的遗传特征发生改变。
Selective breeding (artificial selection) involves humans choosing individuals with desired traits to breed, which can reduce the gene pool and lead to health problems. Genetic engineering transfers genes between different species to produce desirable proteins, such as insulin produced by bacteria.
选择性育种（人工选择）是人类挑选具有所需性状的个体进行繁殖，这可能会缩小基因库并引发健康问题。基因工程将基因在不同物种间转移以产生所需蛋白质，例如由细菌制造胰岛素。
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