📚 Year 11 WJEC Biology: Core Knowledge Review | WJEC 生物核心知识点梳理
This comprehensive guide summarises the essential topics covered in Year 11 WJEC GCSE Biology. Understanding these core concepts will help you prepare effectively for your examinations and build a strong foundation for further study.
本指南全面梳理了 WJEC GCSE 生物 Year 11 的核心知识点。掌握这些概念有助于高效备考，并为后续学习打下坚实基础。
1. Cell Structure and Specialisation | 细胞结构与特化
All living organisms are made of cells. Eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi) have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum. Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) are much smaller, lack a nucleus, and have a single circular strand of DNA freely suspended in the cytoplasm.
所有生物均由细胞构成。真核细胞（植物、动物、真菌）具有真正的细胞核和具膜细胞器，如线粒体、核糖体和内质网。原核细胞（细菌）体积更小，没有细胞核，仅有一条环状 DNA 漂浮在细胞质中。
Plant cells have additional structures: a rigid cellulose cell wall, a large permanent vacuole for storage and support, and chloroplasts containing chlorophyll to absorb light energy for photosynthesis. Animal cells lack these features but often contain many smaller vacuoles and centrosomes involved in cell division.
植物细胞还具有额外结构：由纤维素组成的坚韧细胞壁、用于储存和支撑的中央大液泡，以及含叶绿素的叶绿体以吸收光能进行光合作用。动物细胞没有这些结构，但通常含有许多较小的液泡和参与细胞分裂的中心体。
Many cells become specialised to perform specific functions. For example, sperm cells have a tail for swimming and many mitochondria to provide energy, while egg cells are large and contain nutrient reserves. Nerve cells (neurons) are long and have branched endings to transmit electrical impulses. Root hair cells in plants have a long thin extension to increase the surface area for water and mineral absorption.
许多细胞会特化以执行特定功能。例如，精子具有用于游动的尾巴和大量线粒体提供能量；卵细胞体积较大，含有营养物质储备。神经细胞（神经元）细长且有分支末梢，用于传递电信号。植物根毛细胞具有细长的突起，以增加吸收水分和矿物质的表面积。
2. Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis | 细胞分裂：有丝分裂与减数分裂
Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells from one parent cell. It is used for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. The process involves one round of division after DNA replication, ensuring each new cell receives a complete set of chromosomes identical to the original.
有丝分裂由一个亲代细胞产生两个遗传上完全相同的二倍体子细胞，用于生长、修复和无性繁殖。该过程在 DNA 复制后只进行一次分裂，确保每个新细胞获得与原始细胞完全相同的一整套染色体。
Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes. It involves two successive divisions, reducing the chromosome number by half. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through crossing over, introducing variation. Independent assortment further shuffles alleles, leading to genetic diversity in offspring.
减数分裂产生四个遗传上独特的单倍体配子。它包含两次连续分裂，将染色体数目减半。在减数第一次分裂中，同源染色体配对并通过交叉互换交换遗传物质，引入变异。自由组合进一步重排等位基因，使后代具有遗传多样性。
| Feature / 特征 | Mitosis / 有丝分裂 | Meiosis / 减数分裂 |
|---|---|---|
| Purpose 目的 | Growth, repair, asexual reproduction 生长、修复、无性繁殖 | Production of gametes for sexual reproduction 产生配子，用于有性生殖 |
| Number of daughter cells 子细胞数目 | 2 2 | 4 4 |
| Genetic variation 遗传变异 | None (clones) 无（克隆） | Yes (crossing over, independent assortment) 有（交叉互换、自由组合） |
| Chromosome number in daughter cells 子细胞染色体数目 | Diploid (2n) 二倍体 | Haploid (n) 单倍体 |
3. Digestive System and Enzymes | 消化系统与酶
The digestive system breaks down large, insoluble food molecules into smaller, soluble ones that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Mechanical digestion (chewing, churning) increases surface area, while chemical digestion uses specific enzymes to catalyse the breakdown of macromolecules.
消化系统将大而难溶的食物分子分解为可吸收进入血液的小分子可溶物质。物理性消化（咀嚼、搅动）增加表面积，化学性消化则利用特定的酶催化大分子分解。
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein. They have an active site complementary to their specific substrate. Amylase, produced in the salivary glands and pancreas, breaks down starch into the sugar maltose. Proteases (such as pepsin in the stomach and trypsin in the pancreas) hydrolyse proteins into amino acids. Lipases, produced by the pancreas and working in the small intestine, break lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Bile is not an enzyme but emulsifies fats, increasing their surface area for lipase action.
酶是由蛋白质构成的生物催化剂，其活性位点与特定底物互补。淀粉酶由唾液腺和胰腺分泌，将淀粉分解为麦芽糖。蛋白酶（如胃中的胃蛋白酶和胰腺分泌的胰蛋白酶）将蛋白质水解为氨基酸。脂肪酶由胰腺分泌并在小肠中起作用，将脂质分解为脂肪酸和甘油。胆汁不是酶，但能乳化脂肪，增大表面积以利于脂肪酶作用。
| Enzyme / 酶 | Site of production / 产生部位 | Substrate / 底物 | Products / 产物 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Amylase / 淀粉酶 | Salivary glands, pancreas / 唾液腺、胰腺 | Starch / 淀粉 | Maltose / 麦芽糖 |
| Protease / 蛋白酶 | Stomach, pancreas / 胃、胰腺 | Protein / 蛋白质 | Amino acids / 氨基酸 |
| Lipase / 脂肪酶 | Pancreas / 胰腺 | Lipids (fats) / 脂质 | Fatty acids + glycerol / 脂肪酸 + 甘油 |
4. Circulatory System and Blood | 循环系统与血液
The human circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products around the body. The heart is a double pump: the right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
人体循环系统由心脏、血管和血液组成，负责在全身输送氧气、营养物质、激素和废物。心脏是一个双泵系统：右侧将缺氧血泵送至肺部，左侧将富氧血泵送至身体其他部分。
There are three main types of blood vessel. Arteries carry blood away from the heart; they have thick, muscular, elastic walls to withstand high pressure. Veins return blood to the heart at lower pressure and contain valves to prevent backflow. Capillaries are microscopic, one-cell-thick vessels that allow efficient exchange of substances by diffusion.
血管主要有三种类型。动脉将血液带离心脏，具有厚实、富有肌肉和弹性的管壁以承受高压。静脉在较低压力下将血液送回心脏，并含有瓣膜以防止回流。毛细血管是微小的单层细胞厚度血管，允许物质通过扩散高效交换。
| Component / 成分 | Function / 功能 |
|---|---|
| Red blood cells / 红细胞 | Contain haemoglobin; carry oxygen / 含有血红蛋白，运输氧气 |
| White blood cells / 白细胞 | Defend against pathogens (phagocytosis, antibody production) / 抵抗病原体（吞噬、产生抗体） |
| Platelets / 血小板 | Involved in blood clotting / 参与血液凝固 |
| Plasma / 血浆 | Transports dissolved substances (nutrients, hormones, CO₂, urea) / 运输溶解物（营养、激素、CO₂、尿素） |
5. Infectious Diseases and Immune Response | 传染病与免疫反应
Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious diseases. Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists can all act as pathogens. Bacteria produce toxins that damage cells, while viruses invade and replicate inside host cells, eventually causing cell death. Fungal and protist pathogens often cause disease by damaging tissues or competing for nutrients.
病原体是引起传染病的微生物。细菌、病毒、真菌和原生生物均可成为病原体。细菌产生损害细胞的毒素，病毒侵入宿主细胞并在其中复制，最终导致细胞死亡。真菌和原生生物病原体通常通过损害组织或竞争养分引发疾病。
The body's first line of defence includes physical barriers such as skin and mucus. If pathogens enter, white blood cells respond in two major ways: phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens non-specifically, while lymphocytes produce specific antibodies that bind to antigens on the pathogen surface, marking them for destruction. Memory cells remain after an infection, giving long-term immunity.
人体的第一道防线包括皮肤和粘液等物理屏障。若病原体入侵，白细胞以两种主要方式应答：吞噬细胞非特异性地吞噬并消化病原体；淋巴细胞则产生特定的抗体，与病原体表面的抗原结合并标记其消灭。感染后留存的记忆细胞可提供长期免疫力。
Vaccination involves introducing weakened or inactive forms of a pathogen to stimulate the immune system to produce memory cells without causing illness. Antibiotics specifically kill bacteria but are ineffective against viruses. Overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains.
疫苗接种通过引入弱化或灭活的病原体，刺激免疫系统产生记忆细胞而无需引发疾病。抗生素专门杀灭细菌，但对病毒无效。抗生素的过度使用会导致耐药菌株出现。
6. Photosynthesis and Plant Transport | 光合作用和植物运输
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants (and some algae) convert light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose. It takes place in chloroplasts using the green pigment chlorophyll. The overall word equation is:
光合作用是植物（及部分藻类）将光能转化为储存在葡萄糖中的化学能的过程，发生在叶绿体中，依靠绿色色素叶绿素进行。总文字方程式为：
Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen
二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气
The balanced chemical equation:
平衡化学方程式：
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. At low light or low CO₂, the rate increases as the factor increases. At very high temperatures, enzymes denature and the rate decreases.
光合作用速率受光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度影响。在低光强或低 CO₂ 条件下，速率随该因子升高而增加；在过高温度下，酶会变性，导致速率下降。
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from plant leaves, mainly through stomata. It creates a tension that pulls water and dissolved mineral ions up from roots through xylem vessels. Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars (translocation) from sources to sinks. The opening and closing of stomata are controlled by guard cells.
蒸腾作用是植物叶片丧失水蒸气的过程，主要通过气孔进行。它产生拉力，将水分和溶解的矿物质离子从根经木质部导管向上拉动。韧皮部组织运输溶解的糖（转运作用），由“源”运输至“库”。气孔的开闭由保卫细胞调控。
7. Respiration and Energy | 呼吸作用与能量
Respiration is the process that releases energy from glucose in living cells. It is not the same as breathing. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces a large amount of ATP. The balanced equation is:
呼吸作用是在活细胞中从葡萄糖释放能量的过程，它不同于呼吸动作。有氧呼吸需要氧气，产生大量 ATP。平衡方程式为：
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)
Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen and releases much less energy. In animals, it produces lactic acid from glucose, causing
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