📚 Year 11 WJEC Chemistry: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Memory Guide | Year 11 WJEC 化学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the precise vocabulary of chemistry is essential for success in Year 11 WJEC Chemistry. Clear understanding of terms like 'ion', 'mole' or 'activation energy' not only boosts your exam confidence but helps you answer questions accurately. This guide groups key terms from Unit 2 topics, offering quick memory tricks and definitions in both English and Chinese to reinforce learning.
掌握化学的精确词汇对 Year 11 WJEC 化学考试的成功至关重要。清楚理解诸如“离子”、“摩尔”或“活化能”等术语，不仅能提升考试信心，还能帮助你准确作答。本指南按 Unit 2 主题分类关键术语，提供英文和中文的快速记忆技巧与定义，以强化学习。
1. Atomic Structure & Periodic Table Terms | 原子结构与周期表术语
e atomic number (Z) is the number of protons, which identifies the element. The mass number (A) is the total of protons and neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, therefore different mass numbers. Remember: 'A = mass, Z = protons', and for a neutral atom, electrons = protons.
原子由一个微小致密的原子核（含质子（正电）和中子（中性））以及核外按壳层排布的电子（负电）组成。原子序数（Z）是质子数，决定了是什么元素。质量数（A）是质子与中子的总数。同位素是质子数相同而中子数不同的同种原子，因此质量数不同。记忆口诀：“A是质量数，Z是质子数”，中性原子中电子数等于质子数。
Elements are arranged in the periodic table by increasing atomic number. Groups (vertical columns) contain elements with the same number of outer shell electrons, giving similar chemical properties. Periods (horizontal rows) show the number of occupied electron shells. Group 0 (noble gases) are unreactive due to full outer shells. Alkali metals (Group 1) are very reactive, losing one electron to form 1⁺ ions. Halogens (Group 7) gain one electron to form 1⁻ ions, and their reactivity decreases down the group.
元素在周期表中按原子序数递增排列。族（竖列）的元素最外层电子数相同，化学性质相似。周期（横行）表示占据的电子壳层数。第0族（稀有气体）因最外层全满而惰性。碱金属（第1族）非常活泼，失去一个电子形成1⁺离子。卤素（第7族）获得一个电子形成1⁻离子，活泼性向下减弱。
2. Chemical Bonding & Structure Terminology | 化学键与结构术语
Ionic bonding occurs when metals transfer electrons to non-metals, forming positive cations and negative anions that attract in a giant ionic lattice. High melting points and conductivity when molten or dissolved are key properties. Covalent bonding involves sharing electron pairs between non-metals, forming either simple molecular substances (e.g. H₂O, CO₂) with weak intermolecular forces, or giant covalent structures (e.g. diamond, SiO₂) where atoms are joined by strong covalent bonds throughout. Metallic bonding results from a 'sea' of delocalised electrons surrounding positive metal ions, giving malleability and electrical conductivity.
离子键发生在金属把电子转移给非金属时，形成阳离子和阴离子，通过静电引力组成巨型离子晶格。熔点高、熔融或溶解时能导电是主要性质。共价键是非金属之间共用电子对，形成简单分子物质（如水、二氧化碳），其间分子间作用力较弱；或形成巨型共价结构（如金刚石、二氧化硅），原子通过强共价键连成网络。金属键是离域电子“海洋”包围金属阳离子，使得金属具有延展性和导电性。
Allotropes of carbon illustrate structural variety: diamond (each carbon bonded to four others, hard, insulator), graphite (layered, delocalised electrons conduct electricity, soft) and graphene (single layer of graphite, strong, conductive). Understanding these terms helps explain trends in properties across different substances.
碳的同素异形体展示结构多样性：金刚石（每个碳与四个碳成键，坚硬、绝缘）、石墨（层状，离域电子可导电，质软）和石墨烯（单层石墨，强韧导电）。理解这些术语有助于解释不同物质的性质趋势。
3. Formulae, Equations & State Symbols | 化学式、方程式与状态符号
m in a molecule. A word equation names reactants and products; a symbol equation uses chemical formulae and must be balanced to satisfy the law of conservation of mass. State symbols (s) solid, (l) liquid, (g) gas and (aq) aqueous are vital for WJEC marks. For example: 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl₂(aq) + H₂(g). An ionic equation shows only the ions that change, omitting spectator ions.
实验式给出化合物中原子最简整数比，而分子式展示一个分子中每种原子的实际数目。文字方程式写出反应物和产物的名称；符号方程式使用化学式且必须配平，遵循质量守恒定律。状态符号 (s) 固体、(l) 液体、(g) 气体和 (aq) 水溶液对WJEC得分至关重要。例如：2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)。离子方程式只表示实际参与反应的离子，省去旁观离子。
Half-equations represent either oxidation or reduction separately, showing electron transfer. Mastering the ability to write balanced half-equations is crucial for redox and electrolysis topics. Always check charge and atom balance.
半反应式分别表示氧化或还原过程，显示电子转移。掌握配平半反应式的技能对氧化还原和电解部分至关重要。务必检查电荷与原子守恒。
4. Acids, Bases & Salts Vocabulary | 酸、碱与盐词汇
ali is a soluble base that releases OH⁻ ions. Neutralisation is the reaction H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O. The pH scale measures acidity on a logarithmic scale: lower pH = higher H⁺ concentration. Strong acids (e.g. HCl, HNO₃, H₂SO₄) fully dissociate, while weak acids (e.g. ethanoic acid) partially dissociate, which affects conductivity and rate.
酸是质子（H⁺）供体；在水中释放H⁺离子。碱是能中和酸的物质，通常为金属氧化物或氢氧化物；可溶性碱称为碱溶液，释放OH⁻离子。中和反应为 H⁺ + OH⁻ → H₂O。pH值以对数标度衡量酸性：pH越小，H⁺浓度越高。强酸（如盐酸、硝酸、硫酸）完全解离，弱酸（如乙酸）部分解离，这影响导电性和反应速度。
tes, hydrochloric acid → chlorides. Titration is a technique to find an unknown concentration where a solution of known concentration (standard solution) is added until the indicator shows the endpoint.
盐由酸中的H⁺被金属或铵离子取代而成。命名依据酸根：硫酸→硫酸盐，硝酸→硝酸盐，盐酸→氯化物。滴定是一种测定未知浓度的方法，用已知浓度的标准溶液加入，直至指示剂显示终点。
5. Redox & Electrolysis Terms | 氧化还原与电解术语
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons (OIL), Reduction Is Gain of electrons (RIG). An oxidising agent accepts electrons and is itself reduced; a reducing agent donates electrons and is itself oxidised. Redox reactions always involve simultaneous oxidation and reduction. Half-equations are used to separate the processes.
氧化是失去电子（OIL），还原是得到电子（RIG）。氧化剂接受电子，自身被还原；还原剂给出电子，自身被氧化。氧化还原反应总是同时发生氧化和还原。用半反应式分开表示过程。
Electrolysis uses an electric current to drive a non-spontaneous reaction. The electrolyte is the molten or dissolved ionic compound. The cathode (negative electrode) attracts cations, where reduction occurs; the anode (positive electrode) attracts anions, where oxidation occurs. For example, in the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, Pb²⁺ gains electrons at the cathode, and Br⁻ loses electrons at the anode. Key terms: electrode, anode, cathode, electrolyte.
电解是利用电流驱动非自发的反应。电解质为熔融或溶解的离子化合物。阴极（负极）吸引阳离子，发生还原；阳极（正极）吸引阴离子，发生氧化。例如，电解熔融溴化铅，铅离子在阴极得电子，溴离子在阳极失电子。关键术语：电极、阳极、阴极、电解质。
6. Stoichiometry & Mole Calculations | 化学计量与摩尔计算
ues in a formula. A mole is the amount of substance containing the Avogadro constant (6.02 × 10²³) of particles. Molar mass (g/mol) is the mass of one mole, numerically equal to Mᵣ. Conversion: moles = mass / molar mass. Concentration can be expressed in g/dm³ or mol/dm³, where mol/dm³ = moles / volume (dm³).
相对原子质量（Aᵣ）是原子质量与碳-12的1/12相比的平均值。相对式量（Mᵣ）是化学式中各原子Aᵣ的总和。摩尔是物质的数量，含阿伏伽德罗常数（6.02 × 10²³）个微粒。摩尔质量（g/mol）是一摩尔的质量，数值上等于Mᵣ。换算：摩尔数 = 质量 / 摩尔质量。浓度可用 g/dm³ 或 mol/dm³ 表示，其中 mol/dm³ = 摩尔数 / 体积（dm³）。
Percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%. Atom economy = (Mᵣ of desired product / sum of Mᵣ of all reactants) × 100% to evaluate reaction efficiency and green chemistry. Always show working in calculations.
产率百分数 = (实际产量 / 理论产量) × 100%。原子经济性 = (目标产物Mᵣ / 所有反应物Mᵣ之和) × 100%。这些术语用于评估反应效率和绿色化学。计算中须列步骤。
7. Rates of Reaction Terms | 反应速率术语
The rate of reaction measures how quickly a reactant is used up or a product is formed. Collision theory states that particles must collide with energy greater than or equal to the activation energy (Eₐ) for a reaction to occur. Increasing concentration, pressure (gases), surface area (solids), or temperature all increase the rate by raising the number of successful collisions. A catalyst provides an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy, speeding up the reaction without being used up.
反应速率衡量反应物消耗或产物生成快慢。碰撞理论认为，粒子必须发生碰撞且能量达到或超过活化能（Eₐ）才能反应。增加浓度、气压（气体）、固体表面积或温度，都能通过增加有效碰撞次数来提高速率。催化剂提供一条活化能较低的替代反应路径，加快反应而自身不被消耗。
Rate experiments may monitor volume of gas produced, loss of mass, or colour change over time. A steeper initial gradient on a graph of amount of product vs time indicates a faster rate. Understanding activation energy is key to interpreting energy profile diagrams and the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution (the spread of particle energies at a given temperature).
速率实验可通过监测产气体积、体系质量损失或颜色变化随时间变化来测量。产物量-时间图上初始梯度越陡，反应速率越快。理解活化能是解读能量轮廓图和麦克斯韦-玻尔兹曼分布（给定温度下粒子能量分布）的关键。
8. Energy Changes in Chemistry | 化学中的能量变化
ke in energy (feels cold, positive ΔH), e.g. photosynthesis, thermal decomposition. The enthalpy change (ΔH) is the heat exchanged at constant pressure. Activation energy (Eₐ) is the minimum energy for bonds to break. Bond breaking is endothermic; bond making is exothermic. Overall ΔH = Σ(bond energies of bonds broken) – Σ(bond energies of bonds made).
放热反应向环境传递能量（感觉变热，ΔH为负），如燃烧、中和。吸热反应从环境吸收能量（感觉变冷，ΔH为正），如光合作用、热分解。焓变（ΔH）是恒压下交换的热量。活化能（Eₐ）是断裂化学键所需最低能量。断键吸热，成键放热。总ΔH = Σ(断裂键的键能) – Σ(形成键的键能)。
hermic profiles have products higher. Catalysts lower the peak without altering ΔH. Calorimetry experiments (e.g. measuring temperature change of water) allow calculation of ΔH using q = mcΔT, where m is mass, c is specific heat capacity (usually 4.18 J/g°C for water), ΔT is temperature change.
能量轮廓图以能量为纵轴、反应进程为横轴。放热反应产物能量低于反应物；吸热反应产物能量高于反应物。催化剂降低峰顶但不改变ΔH。量热实验（如测量水温变化）利用 q = mcΔT 计算ΔH，其中m为质量，c为比热容（水约4.18 J/g°C），ΔT为温度变化。
9. Organic Chemistry – Crude Oil & Alkanes | 有机化学——原油与烷烃
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons, separated by fractional distillation. A hydrocarbon is a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂. They form a homologous series with gradual change in physical properties. Shorter chains have lower boiling points and lower viscosity; they are more volatile and ignite more easily. Important alkanes: methane (CH₄), ethane (C₂H₆), propane (C₃H₈). Complete combustion of alkanes produces CO₂ and H₂O, releasing energy.
原油是烃的混合物，通过分馏分离。烃是只含碳和氢的化合物。烷烃为饱和烃，通式为 CₙH₂ₙ₊₂，组成同系物，物理性质逐渐变化。链越短，沸点越低，黏度越小，更易挥发和点燃。重要烷烃：甲烷、乙烷、丙烷。烷烃完全燃烧生成二氧化碳和水，释放能量。
Fractional distillation works because different fractions have different boiling point ranges. The column is hot at the bottom and cooler at the top. Fractions like refinery gas, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil and bitumen are collected at different levels. Remembering the trend in viscosity and boiling point helps in WJEC data questions.
分馏原理是不同馏分沸点范围不同。塔底最热，塔顶最冷。炼厂气、汽油、煤油、柴油、燃料油和沥青等馏分在不同高度收集。记住黏度和沸点变化趋势对WJEC数据分析题很有帮助。
10. Organic Chemistry – Alkenes & Polymers | 有机化学——烯烃与聚合物
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one C═ lourise bromine water (orange → colourless) in an addition reaction, a test for unsaturation. Addition reactions involve the double bond opening up to add atoms without losing anything.
烯烃是不饱和烃，至少含一个C═C双键；通式 CₙH₂ₙ。乙烯（C₂H₄）是最简单的烯烃。碳碳双键使烯烃比烷烃更活泼。烯烃可使溴水褪色（橙色变无色），发生加成反应，这是检验不饱和性的方法。加成反应中双键打开，加上原子而没有小分子脱去。
Polymers are long molecules built from many small monomers. Addition polymerisation occurs when alkene monomers (e.g. ethene) join together, opening their double bonds. The repeating unit shows the structure of the polymer chain; poly(ethene) has the repeating unit –CH₂–CH₂–. Thermosoftening polymers have weak intermolecular forces and soften when heated; thermosetting polymers have strong crosslinks and do not melt once set. Biodegradable polymers and recycling reduce environmental impact.
聚合物是由许多小分子单体组成的长链分子。加成聚合是烯烃单体（如乙烯）通过打开双键连接起来。重复单元表示聚合物链的结构；聚乙烯的重复单元为 –CH₂–CH₂–。热塑性聚合物分子间力弱，受热软化；热固性聚合物有强交联，定型后不再熔化。可生物降解聚合物和回收利用可减轻环境影响。
11. Reversible Reactions & Dynamic Equilibria | 可逆反应与动态平衡
A reversible reaction can proceed in both forward and backward directions. Dynamic equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of the forward and back reactions are equal, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant. Le Chatelier’s principle states: if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure or temperature, the position of equilibrium shifts to oppose the change.
可逆反应可以同时向正、逆两个方向进行。在密闭系统中，当正逆反应速率相等、各物质浓度保持恒定时，达到动态平衡。勒夏特列原理指出：处于平衡的体系在浓度、压强或温度改变时，平衡会向减弱此改变的方向移动。
The Haber process (N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃) is a key example. Exothermic forward reaction; lower temperature favours NH₃ yield but rate is too slow, so a compromise of 450°C with an iron catalyst is used. Higher pressure favours fewer moles of gas, so 200 atm pushes equilibrium to the right. Understanding these terms helps explain industrial optimisation of yield and rate.
哈伯法（N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃）是关键案例。正向放热；低温有利于氨的产率但速率太慢，所以采用450°C并加铁催化剂的折中条件。高压（200 atm）使平衡向气体分子数减少的方向移动，提高产率。理解这些术语有助于解释工业上如何优化产率与速率。
12. Practical & Analytical Techniques | 实验与分析技术
Important apparatus: burette (accurate delivery of variable volumes, used in titration), pipette (delivers a fixed, accurate volume), conical flask, volumetric flask (making standard solutions). The meniscus must be read at eye level. Titration: endpoint is when the indicator just changes colour; concordant results are within 0.1 cm³. Filtration separates an insoluble solid (residue) from a liquid (filtrate). Distillation separates a solvent from a solution based on boiling point, using a condenser to cool vapour back to liquid.
重要仪器：滴定管（精确滴加可变体积，用于滴定）、移液管（精确量取固定体积）、锥形瓶、容量瓶（配制标准溶液）。读数时视线应与弯月面最低点水平。滴定：指示剂刚好变色时为终点，一系列滴定体积差值应在0.1 cm³以内为平行结果。过滤将不溶性固体（残渣）与液体（滤液）分离。蒸馏根据沸点差异分离溶剂，用冷凝管将蒸气冷却回液体。
fferent rates. The Rf value = distance moved by spot / distance moved by solvent front. For ion identification: flame tests produce characteristic colours (Li⁺ red, Na⁺ yellow/orange, K⁺ lilac, Ca²⁺ orange-red, Cu²⁺ green-blue); precipitate tests (e.g. sulfate ions give white precipitate with BaCl₂ acidified with HCl; halides with AgNO₃ plus HNO₃).
色谱法分离混合物中各成分。固定相（滤纸或薄层板）和流动相（溶剂）使物质以不同速率移动。Rf值 = 斑点移动距离 / 溶剂前沿移动距离。离子鉴定：焰色反应显示特征颜色（Li⁺红，Na⁺黄/橙，K⁺淡紫，Ca²⁺砖红，Cu²⁺绿蓝）；沉淀实验（如硫酸根离子用酸化的氯化钡产生白色沉淀；卤离子与硝酸银加稀硝酸产生不同颜色沉淀）。
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