📚 Year 11 WJEC Physics: Vocabulary & Terminology Revision Guide | 十一年级 WJEC 物理：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering key terminology is essential for success in WJEC GCSE Physics. This guide provides clear, bilingual explanations of the most important terms, organised by topic, to help you revise quickly and effectively. Each section covers the vocabulary you are expected to understand and use in exam questions, with English and Chinese definitions side by side.
掌握关键术语是 WJEC 物理考试成功的关键。本指南按主题整理了最重要的词汇，提供清晰的中英双语解释，帮助你快速高效地复习。每个小节都覆盖了考试中你必须理解并运用的术语，英文和中文定义成对呈现，便于记忆。
1. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Scalars and Vectors: A scalar quantity has only magnitude (size), such as speed or distance. A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction, for example displacement, velocity and force. Vectors are often represented by arrows; the length shows magnitude and the arrowhead shows direction.
标量与矢量：标量只有大小，没有方向，如速率和路程。矢量既有大小又有方向，例如位移、速度和力。矢量常用箭头表示，长度代表大小，箭头指向代表方向。
Describing Motion: direction. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: a = (v − u) / t. On a distance–time graph, the gradient gives speed; on a velocity– graph, the gradient gives acceleration and the area under the graph gives distance moved.
描述运动：速率是单位时间内通过的距离（v = d / t）。速度是给定方向上的速率。加速度是速度的变化率：a = (v − u) / t。在距离–时间图中，斜率表示速度；在速度–时间图中，斜率表示加速度，图线下的面积表示移动的距离。
Forces and Momentum: Newton' n object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant force. Newton's second law: F = m a. Newton' rnal forces act. In collisions, the total momentum before equals the total momentum after.
力与动量：牛顿第一定律指出，除非受到合外力作用，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动。牛顿第二定律：F = m a。牛顿第三定律：每个作用力都有一个大小相等、方向相反的反作用力。动量 p = m v 在没有外力的封闭系统中守恒，碰撞前后总动量不变。
2. Energy | 能量
Energy Stores and Transfers: Energy can be stored in kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, thermal, chemical and nuclear stores. Energy is transferred mechanically (by forces), electrically, by heating or by radiation. In any transfer, the total energy before equals the total energy after – the principle of conservation of energy.
能量储存与转移：能量可以储存在动能、重力势能、弹性势能、热能、化学能和核能等储存库中。能量通过机械做功、电流、加热或辐射传递。在任何传递中，传递前总能量等于传递后总能量——能量守恒原理。
Energy Calculations: of energy transfer: P = E / t. Efficiency = useful output energy / total input energy (× 100%).
能量计算：动能 Eₖ = ½ m v²。重力势能 Eₚ = m g h。力与移动方向相同时，做功 W = F d。功率是能量传递的速率：P = E / t。效率 = 有用输出能量 / 总输入能量（× 100%）。
Thermal Energy and Resources: ecome less dense and rise. Infrared radiation can travel through a vacuum. Renewable resources include solar, wind, wave, tidal, hydroelectric and geothermal; non‑ fic heat capacity c is the energy needed to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C: E = m c Δθ.
热能及能源：热传导主要发生在固体中，粒子振动并传递动能。对流发生在流体中，受热区域膨胀、密度变小而上升。红外辐射可以在真空中传播。可再生能源包括太阳能、风能、波浪能、潮汐能、水力和地热；不可再生能源包括化石燃料和核燃料。比热容 c 是将 1 kg 物质升高 1 °C 所需的能量：E = m c Δθ。
3. Electricity | 电学
Current, Charge and Potential Difference: voltage) V is the energy transferred per unit charge: V = W / Q. Resistance R = V / I. Ohm' is constant at constant temperature. A diode allows current in one direction only; an LDR's resistance decreases with light intensity; a thermistor's resistance decreases as temperature rises.
电流、电荷与电势差：电流 I 是电荷流动的速率：I = Q / t。电势差（电压）V 是每单位电荷传递的能量：V = W / Q。电阻 R = V / I。当温度恒定且电阻不变时，遵循欧姆定律。二极管只允许单向电流；光敏电阻（LDR）的电阻随光照增强而减小；热敏电阻的电阻随温度升高而减小。
Circuits and Safety: In series circuits, current is the same everywhere and total resistance adds up. In parallel circuits, the total current is the sum of branch currents and the reciprocal of total resistance is the sum of reciprocals. Domestic electricity uses alternating current (a.c.) at about 230 V, 50 Hz. Fuses and circuit breakers protect circuits; the earth wire and double insulation prevent electric shocks.
电路与安全：在串联电路中，各处电流相等，总电阻相加。在并联电路中，总电流是各支路电流之和，总电阻的倒数是各电阻倒数之和。家用电力使用约 230 V、50 Hz 的交流电（a.c.）。保险丝和断路器保护电路；地线和双重绝缘防止触电。
Power and Energy Transfer: : Electrical power P = I V and also P = I² R. Energy transferred E = I V t. The National Grid uses step‑up transformers to raise voltage (reducing current and heat loss) and step‑down transformers to lower voltage for safe domestic use.
电功率与能量传递：电功率 P = I V，也可表示为 P = I² R。传递的能量 E = I V t。国家电网使用升压变压器提高电压（减小电流和热损耗），再用降压变压器降低电压以供家庭安全使用。
4. Waves | 波
Wave Basics: lations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer (e.g. sound waves). Key terms: amplitude (maximum displacement from rest), wavelength λ (distance between two consecutive identical points), frequency f (number of waves per second, in hertz Hz) and period T = 1 / f.
波的基本概念：横波的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直（如光波、水波）。纵波的振动方向与能量传播方向平行（如声波）。关键术语：振幅（偏离平衡位置的最大位移）、波长 λ（两个相邻相同点之间的距离）、频率 f（每秒波数，单位赫兹 Hz）和周期 T = 1 / f。
Wave Behaviour and the Wave Equation: ected, refracted and diffracted. Refraction occurs when a wave changes speed as it crosses a boundary between media, causing a change in direction. Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles or through gaps; it is greatest when the gap size is similar to the wavelength.
波的行为与波速方程：波速 v = f λ。所有波都可以发生反射、折射和衍射。折射是波在穿过介质边界时因速度改变而发生方向变化。衍射是波绕过障碍物或通过缝隙时扩散的现象；当缝隙尺寸与波长相近时衍射最明显。
5. Electromagnetic Spectrum and Light | 电磁波谱与光
The EM Spectrum: m/s). In order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X‑rays, gamma rays. Each region has distinct uses and hazards – ample, microwaves for cooking and satellite communication, infrared for thermal imaging, X‑ cal imaging, and gamma rays for sterilising equipment and cancer treatment. Ultraviolet, X‑rays and gamma rays are ionising and can damage cells.
电磁波谱：电磁波谱是一组在真空中以相同速度（3.0 × 10⁸ m/s）传播的横波。按频率递增和波长递减的顺序为：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线、伽马射线。各波段有特定的用途和危害——例如微波用于烹饪和卫星通信，红外线用于热成像，X 射线用于医学成像，伽马射线用于设备灭菌和癌症治疗。紫外线、X 射线和伽马射线具有电离能力，可能损伤细胞。
Light and Total Internal Reflection: When light travels from a denser to a less dense medium, it can undergo total internal reflection if the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle. This principle is used in optical fibres for communication and endoscopy. The critical angle depends on the refractive indices of the two media.
光与全内反射：当光从光密介质射向光疏介质时，如果入射角大于临界角，就会发生全内反射。这一原理用于光纤通信和内窥镜检查。临界角取决于两种介质的折射率。
6. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁与电磁
Magnetism and Electromagnets: Permanent magnets produce their own magnetic field; the field lines go from north to south. An electromagnet is made by passing a current through a coil of wire (solenoid), often with a soft iron core to increase strength. Electromagnets are used in relays, electric bells and lifting magnets.
磁性与电磁铁：永磁体产生自身的磁场，磁感线从北极指向南极。让电流通过线圈（螺线管）可以制成电磁铁，通常加入软铁芯以增强磁性。电磁铁用于继电器、电铃和起重磁铁中。
Motor and Generator Effects: A current‑ in a magnetic field experiences a force (motor effect). The direction is given by Fleming's left‑ nductor is perpendicular to the field. The generator effect (electromagnetic induction) occurs when a conductor cuts magnetic field lines, inducing a potential difference. In an alternator, a coil rotates in a magnetic field to produce a.c.; in a dynamo, a split‑ring commutator gives d.c.
电动机效应与发电机效应：磁场中的载流导体受到力的作用（电动机效应），方向由弗莱明左手定则确定。当导线与磁场垂直时，力 F = B I L。发电机效应（电磁感应）发生在导体切割磁感线时，产生感应电动势。交流发电机中线圈在磁场中旋转产生交流电；直流发电机通过分半环换向器输出直流电。
7. Atomic Structure and Radioactivity | 原子结构与放射性
Atomic Structure: Z = number of protons; mass number A = protons + neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
原子结构：原子由极小的原子核和核外电子组成，原子核包含质子（带正电）和中子（不带电）。原子序数 Z = 质子数；质量数 A = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素是质子数相同但中子数不同的同一元素原子。
Types of Nuclear Radiation: Alpha particles (α) are helium nuclei (2 protons + 2 neutrons), highly ionising but stopped by paper. Beta particles (β⁻) are fast electrons, moderately ionising, stopped by a few mm of aluminium. Gamma rays (γ) are electromagnetic waves, weakly ionising, very penetrating, reduced by thick lead. Radioactive decay is random and measured by activity (becquerels, Bq). Half‑life is the average time for half the nuclei in a sample to decay.
核辐射种类：α 粒子是氦核（2 个质子 + 2 个中子），电离能力最强，但一张纸即可阻挡。β⁻ 粒子是高速电子，电离能力中等，几毫米铝板可阻挡。γ 射线是电磁波，电离能力最弱，穿透力极强，厚铅板才能减弱。放射性衰变是随机的，用活度（贝克勒尔，Bq）量度。半衰期是样品中半数原子核衰变所需的平均时间。
Nuclear Energy: Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large, unstable nucleus (e.g. uranium‑235) after absorbing a neutron, releasing energy and more neutrons that can cause a chain reaction. Nuclear fusion involves two light nuclei joining to form a heavier nucleus, releasing even more energy; this occurs in stars but is difficult to achieve on Earth.
核能：核裂变是大而不稳定的原子核（如铀‑235）吸收中子后分裂，释放能量和更多中子，从而引发链式反应。核聚变是两个轻原子核结合成较重的核，释放更大能量；聚变发生在恒星中，但在地球上难以实现。
8. Space Physics | 太空物理
The Solar System and Orbits: ce from the Sun provides the centripetal force. For a circular orbit, orbital speed = 2π r / T. As the radius increases, orbital speed decreases.
太阳系与轨道：我们的太阳系由太阳、行星、矮行星、卫星、小行星和彗星组成。行星在轨道上运行是因为太阳的引力提供了向心力。对于圆轨道，轨道速度 = 2π r / T。轨道半径越大，轨道速度越小。
Stars and Cosm
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