📚 SQA Year 10 Philosophy: Key Terms Quick Memorisation Guide | SQA 十年级哲学：关键术语速记指南
Welcome to your fast-track glossary of essential philosophical vocabulary for SQA Year 10. This guide pairs each key term with a clear definition, a simple example, and a memorable 'hook' or mnemonic to lock it into your mind. By breaking concepts down into bite-sized chunks and linking them to vivid associations, you can turn abstract vocabulary into confident, exam-ready recall. Use this revision tool to strengthen your essays, sharpen your critical thinking, and decode any question the paper throws at you.
欢迎使用这份为 SQA 十年级哲学考试量身打造的核心术语速记指南。每个术语都配有清晰的定义、简明例子，以及一个便于记忆的“钩子”或助记口诀，帮你把抽象概念牢牢刻在脑海里。将复杂词汇拆解成小块，并与生动的联想挂钩，你就能把原本抽象的术语变成考试时信手拈来的利器。用这本复习手册来夯实你的论证基础、锻炼批判性思维，并轻松拆解任何考题。
1. Epistemology: Knowledge and Justification | 认识论：知识与辩护
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that asks 'What is knowledge?' and 'How do we come to know things?'. The root comes from Greek episteme (knowledge). Think of it as the 'epi-centre' of understanding. The classic definition of knowledge is justified true belief: you believe something, it is true, and you have good reasons (justification) for that belief. This tripartite structure helps you remember that a lucky guess is not knowledge.
认识论是哲学中探究“什么是知识”以及“我们如何认识事物”的分支。词根来自希腊语 episteme（知识），不妨把它想象成理解的“震中”。知识的经典定义是得到辩护的真信念：你相信某事，这事为真，而且你有充分理由（辩护）来支撑这个信念。这种三元结构能帮你记住：侥幸猜中不算知识。
A Priori vs. A Posteriori: An a priori truth can be known independently of experience, like 'All bachelors are unmarried' — you just need to understand the words. An a posteriori truth depends on experience, such as 'It is raining outside'. Mnemonic: A priori = 'prior' to experience; a posteriori = 'post' experience.
先验与后验：先验真理可以独立于经验而获知，比如“所有单身汉都未婚”，你只需要理解词义。后验真理则必须依赖经验，比如“外面在下雨”。记忆窍门：先验（a priori）是经验之“前”；后验（a posteriori）是经验之“后”。
Empiricism vs. Rationalism: Empiricists argue that all knowledge comes from sensory experience — the mind is a blank slate. Rationalists hold that reason alone can provide knowledge, and that some ideas are innate. Quick link: Empirical = experiment; Rational = reason.
经验论与唯理论：经验论者主张一切知识都来自感官经验，心灵是一块白板。唯理论者则认为单凭理性就能获得知识，且有些观念是与生俱来的。速记联想：经验（empirical）对应实验（experiment）；理性（rational）对应推理（reason）。
Scepticism: This is the view that we cannot have certain knowledge. A global sceptic doubts everything, even the existence of the external world. Methodological scepticism, used by Descartes, is a tool to find indubitable truths. Remember: a sceptic is like a detective who questions every piece of evidence.
怀疑论：这是一种认为我们无法获得确定知识的观点。全局怀疑论者质疑一切，甚至外部世界的存在。笛卡尔所用的方法论怀疑，则是寻找不可怀疑之真理的工具。记住：怀疑论者就像对每一条证据都要盘问的侦探。
2. Metaphysics: Reality and Existence | 形而上学：实在与存在
Metaphysics deals with the fundamental nature of reality: what exists, what it means to be a thing, and how cause and time operate. The word literally means 'after physics', but think of it as asking the biggest 'what if' questions about the universe. Key areas include substance, free will, and the mind-body puzzle.
形而上学探讨实在的根本性质：什么存在，成为一件事物意味着什么，因果与时间如何运作。这个名称字面意思是“物理学之后”，大可以把它想象成问出宇宙中最大的那些“如果……会怎样”的问题。主要领域包括实体、自由意志和身心之谜。
Substance: hinking substance, and the body is an extended substance. Mnemonic: substance = that which 'stands under' (supports) properties.
实体：在哲学中，实体是能独立存在并承载属性的东西。在笛卡尔看来，心灵是思维实体，身体是广延实体。记忆法：实体（substance）就是“站在下面”支撑属性的东西。
Dualism: The theory that mind and body are two fundamentally different kinds of substance — mental and physical. Think of the 'Two-Worlds' idea: your inner world of thoughts and feelings is distinct from the outer world of neurons and flesh. Descartes' interactionism is a famous version.
二元论：主张心灵与身体是两种根本不同的实体——精神实体与物质实体。想象一个“两个世界”的图景：你内心的思想情感世界与外在的神经元和肉体世界截然分开。笛卡尔的交互论就是著名的版本。
Materialism (Physicalism): The view that only physical matter exists; everything, including consciousness, can be explained in terms of physical processes. A helpful image: the mind is to the brain as a smile is to a face — not a separate thing, but an activity of the physical.
唯物论（物理主义）：主张只有物质存在，一切包括意识都可以用物理过程来解释。一个有用的比喻：心灵之于大脑，好比微笑之于脸庞——不是独立的事物，而是物理体的活动。
Free Will vs. Determinism: Free will is the ability to choose otherwise. Hard determinism claims every event is causally determined, so free will is an illusion. Compatibilism argues that freedom is compatible with determinism if we act on our own desires. To recall: hard determinists believe your life is a pre-written script; compatibilists say you can still improvise within the script.
自由意志与决定论：自由意志就是能够做出不同选择的能力。强硬决定论主张每个事件都由因果决定，因此自由意志只是幻觉。相容论则认为，只要按照自己的愿望行动，自由与决定论便能相容。记法：强硬决定论者相信你的人生是一部已经写好的剧本；相容论者则说，你仍可在剧本中即兴发挥。
3. Ethics: Moral Theories and Concepts | 伦理学：道德理论与概念
Ethics explores how we ought to live and which actions are right or wrong. When revising, categorise theories by focus: consequences (teleological), duties (deontological), or character (virtue ethics). This gives you a mental filing cabinet for every moral term you encounter.
伦理学探讨我们应当如何生活，以及什么行为是对是错。复习时可按关注点来分类：后果（目的论）、义务（义务论）或品格（德性伦理）。这会在你脑中建起一个存放所有道德术语的档案柜。
Utilitarianism: The ethical theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure and minimises pain. Founded by Bentham and Mill, it uses the Greatest Happiness Principle. Mnemonic: 'Use it' to maximise utility — like a happiness calculator.
功利主义：认为正确的行为就是能够最大化整体快乐或幸福、最小化痛苦的行为。由边沁和密尔奠基，采用最大幸福原则。记法：把它想成一台“功利计算器”——计算幸福总值。
Deontology: From Greek deon (duty). This theory, associated with Kant, holds that actions are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of consequences. The core test is the Categorical Imperative: act only according to a rule you could will to be a universal law. Think 'Duty-on-tology': your action is a duty, period.
义务论：来自希腊语 deon（义务）。由康德代表的这一理论主张，行为本身就有对错，与后果无关。其核心检验标准是绝对命令：只按照你愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。记住“义务当头”——你的行为就是义务，没得商量。
Virtue Ethics: Focused on moral character rather than rules or consequences. Aristotle's idea is to cultivate virtues (courage, honesty) until they become habits, aiming for eudaimonia (flourishing). Link: 'virtue' sounds like 'vir-tue', as in 'the true you' becoming your best self.
德性伦理：关注道德品格，而非规则或后果。亚里士多德的思想是要培育德性（勇敢、诚实），直至它们成为习惯，以达到 eudaimonia（人的兴盛）。联想：“德性”就是塑造“真正的你”，让它成为最好的自己。
Moral Relativism: The view that moral truths are not absolute but relative to culture, society, or individual perspective. Descriptive relativism notes that different cultures have different moral codes; normative relativism says no code is objectively better. Memory aid: a moral chameleon — it changes colour depending on where it sits.
道德相对主义：主张道德真理并非绝对，而是相对于文化、社会或个人视角而言。描述性相对主义指出不同文化有不同的道德规范；规范性相对主义则声称没有哪个规范在客观上更优越。记忆提示：道德变色龙——坐在哪里就变成什么颜色。
4. Logic and Argumentation | 逻辑与论证
Clear reasoning is the backbone of philosophy. Being fluent in the language of logic helps you evaluate arguments on the exam and construct your own. Start with the building blocks: premises lead to a conclusion; arguments can be deductive (certain) or inductive (probable).
清晰的推理是哲学的骨架。熟练掌握逻辑语言能帮你在考场上评价论证，也能让你自己构建论证。从基本构件开始：前提导向结论；论证可以是演绎的（必然的）或归纳的（或然的）。
Deductive Reasoning: An argument where, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Example: All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal. Think: 'Deduce' means you follow the lock-step necessity — no escape from the conclusion.
演绎推理：如果前提为真，结论就必然为真的论证。例如：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。想象“演绎”就像顺着紧锁的链条走——结论无处可逃。
Inductive Reasoning: argument where the premises provide strong support but not a guarantee for the conclusion. 'The sun has risen every day; therefore, it will rise tomorrow' is inductive. Inductive = 'in' + 'duct' like a current leading to a likely outcome, not a watertight proof.
归纳推理：前提为结论提供有力支持却不予以担保的论证。“太阳每天都升起；因此明天太阳也会升起”就是归纳推理。归纳就像电流导入一种可能的结果，并非滴水不漏的证明。
Premise and Conclusion: The premise is a statement offered as evidence; the conclusion is the claim the argument tries to establish. Visualise a pyramid: premises are the foundation blocks, the conclusion sits at the top. Always identify the main conclusion first in exam questions.
前提与结论：前提是作为证据提出的陈述；结论是论证试图确立的主张。想象一座金字塔：前提是底部砖块，结论坐在塔尖。考试做题时，务必先找出主要结论。
Fallacy: A flaw in reasoning that weakens an argument. Common ones include ad hominem (attacking the person, not the argument) and begging the question (assuming what you are trying to prove). Treat the word 'fallacy' as a 'false-acy' — a false move in logic.
谬误：论证中削弱推理的缺陷。常见的有人身攻击谬误（攻击人而非论点）和循环论证（假定所要证明的结论）。把 fallacy 想象为 false-move（假动作），是逻辑中的一步错棋。
5. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
This area examines arguments for and against the existence of God, the nature of religious language, and the problem of evil. Whether you are a theist, atheist, or agnostic, analysing these terms philosophically requires precise definitions and an open but critical mind.
这一领域考察支持与反对上帝存在的论证、宗教语言的本质以及恶的问题。无论你是有神论者、无神论者还是不可知论者，从哲学上分析这些术语都需要精确的定义和开放而批判的头脑。
Theism: God or gods, typically a personal, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent being. Think 'Theos' = God in Greek. Theism sees the universe as intentionally created and sustained.
有神论：相信有一个或一些神存在，通常是一个具备全知、全能、全善属性的人格神。Theos 在希腊语中就是“神”。有神论把宇宙看作被有意创造并维持的。
Atheism: The lack of belief in any gods. Positive atheism asserts there is no God; negative atheism simply withholds belief. Associate 'a-theism' with 'absence' — no God in the picture.
无神论：不相信任何神的存在。积极无神论断言没有神；消极无神论则仅仅是不持有神信念。a-theism 中的 a 表示“没有”——画面中没有神。
Agnosticism: The view that it is impossible to know whether or not God exists. Derived from Greek a-gnosis (without knowledge). An agnostic stays in the 'I don't know' camp. Think of a door marked 'unknown' — it cannot be opened with our current evidence.
不可知论：主张无法确知上帝是否存在。源自希腊语 a-gnosis（无知识）。不可知论者停留在“我不知道”的阵营。想象一扇标着“未知”的门——现有证据打不开它。
Cosmological Argument: An argument for God' the existence of the universe and argues back to a first cause or necessary being. Aquinas' versions are classic. Memory hook: 'cosmos' = universe; the argument asks 'Why is there a cosmos rather than nothing?' and posits an uncaused cause.
宇宙论论证：一种从宇宙存在出发，追溯至第一因或必然存在者的上帝存在论证。阿奎那的版本是经典。记忆钩子：cosmos 即宇宙，这个论证追问“为什么有宇宙而不是虚无？”并推论出一个无因之因。
Problem of Evil: The challenge to theism: if God is all-powerful and all-good, why does evil exist? The logical version claims these claims are inconsistent; the evidential version says the amount of evil makes God's existence unlikely. Remember the trilemma: 'If God cannot prevent evil, He is not omnipotent; if He will not, He is not benevolent.'
恶的问题：对有神论的挑战：如果上帝全能与全善，为什么还会有恶？逻辑版主张这些说法自相矛盾；证据版则认为世上恶的量使得上帝存在变得不太可能。记住这个三难困境：“如果上帝无法阻止恶，那就不是全能；如果祂不愿阻止恶，那就不是全善。”
6. Philosophy of Mind: Consciousness and Identity | 心灵哲学：意识与同一性
What is it like to be you? Philosophy of mind investigates consciousness, subjective experience, and whether the mind can be reduced to brain processes. These terms often appear in questions about personal identity or the nature of mental states, so keep them crisp.
成为你是一种什么样的感觉？心灵哲学探究意识、主观经验以及心灵能否被还原为大脑过程。这些术语经常出现在有关人格同一性或心理状态性质的考题中，因此要保持概念清晰。
Consciousness: The state of being aware of and able to think about one's own existence, sensations, thoughts, and surroundings. Often described as 'what it is like' to be something. Nagel's famous example: there is something it is like to be a bat. Link: conscious = 'with knowing' — you are aware that you are aware.
意识：能够觉知并思考自身存在、感觉、思想和周围环境的状態。常被描述为作为某个东西的“感觉如何”。内格尔的著名例子：成为一只蝙蝠是有某种感觉的。联想：conscious 即“伴有知晓”——你知道你在知道。
Qualia: The individual, subjective 'raw feels' of experience — the redness of red, the pain of a headache. These are the properties that pose a hard problem for physicalism. Phonetic cue: 'qualia' sounds like 'quality' — the qualitative feel of experience.
感质：体验中个别的、主观的“原始感受”——如红色的红、头痛的痛。这些性质构成了物理主义面临的困难问题。发音提示：qualia 像 quality，即经验的质性感受。
Identity Theory (Type Physicalism): The view that mental states are identical to brain states. Just as water is H₂O, pain is C-fibres firing. Thinking tool: identity means one thing seen from two angles — the inner (mental) and the outer (neural).
同一论（类型物理主义）：主张心理状态等同于大脑状态。就像水就是 H₂O，疼痛就是 C-神经纤维的放电。思维工具：同一意味着同一个东西从两个角度去看——内部的（心理）和外部的（神经）。
Functionalism: Mental states are defined by their causal roles — what they do, not what they are made of. A pain is whatever state is caused by tissue damage and leads to avoidance behaviour. Visualise a software program: it can run on different hardware; the function is what matters.
功能主义：心理状态由因果角色来定义——它们做什么，而非由什么构成。疼痛就是由组织损伤引起并导致逃避行为的那种状态。想象一个软件程序：可以在不同硬件上运行，重要的是功能。
7. Political Philosophy: Justice and the State | 政治哲学：正义与国家
Political philosophy examines how societies should be structured, what makes a government legitimate, and the nature of rights and justice. Many questions loop back to the idea of a social contract — an agreement, real or hypothetical, that forms the basis of political obligation.
政治哲学探讨社会应当如何构建，什么使政府具有合法性，以及权利与正义的本质。许多问题都会回溯到社会契约这一概念——一种真实或假想的协定，它构成了政治义务的基础。
Social Contract: The theory that individuals consent, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some freedoms in exchange for security and social order. Think of a mobile phone contract: you give up some freedom (fees, rules) to gain the benefit of connection and protection.
社会契约：认为个人明示或默示地同意放弃某些自由，以换取安全和社会秩序的理论。想象一份手机合约：你放弃了一些自由（交费、守规则），以换取连接和保护的好处。
State of Nature: A hypothetical condition before any government, used to justify why we need political authority. Hobbes saw it as a 'war of all against all'; Locke viewed it as more peaceful but inconvenient. Mnemonic: 'nature' here is raw humanity, unpolished by law — imagine a chaotic playground with no teacher.
自然状态：政府出现之前的假想状态，用来论证为什么我们需要政治权威。霍布斯视之为“一切人反对一切人的战争”；洛克则认为它较为和平但不便。记忆法：这里的“自然”是未经法律打磨的原始人性——好比一个没有老师的混乱操场。
Justice as Fairness: Rawls' principle that a just society is one we would design from behind a 'veil of ignorance', not knowing our own position. The two principles: equal basic liberties, and social inequalities arranged to benefit the least advantaged. Think: design the rules of a board game before you know which piece you will be.
作为公平的正义：罗尔斯的原则，即正义社会是我们站在“无知之幕”后面，不知自己将处于何种地位时设计出来的社会。两大原则：平等的自由，以及使最少受惠者获益的社会经济安排。想象：在不知道自己会拿到哪个棋子之前，先去设计棋盘游戏的规则。
Harm Principle: John Stuart Mill's idea that the only justification for limiting an individual's liberty is to prevent harm to others. You are free to swing your fist, but your freedom stops where my nose begins. Chart it: Self-regarding vs. other-regarding actions — the state can only interfere with the latter.
伤害原则：密尔的主张，即限制个人自由的唯一正当理由是为了防止对他人的伤害。你有挥舞拳头的自由，但你的自由止于我的鼻尖。划个界线：涉己行为与涉他行为——国家只能干预后者。
8. Key -isms and Historical Figures | 重要思想与历史人物
Many philosophical movements end in '-ism', and each one captures a whole worldview. Memorising these along with their chief thinkers turns revision into a game of matching labels to ideas. Use the 'founder + core claim + one example' format for quick recall.
许多哲学思潮都以“主义”结尾，每一个都抓住了一整套世界观。将这些术语与它们的代表人物一起记忆，就能把复习变成一场给观点贴标签的游戏。采用“创始人+核心主张+一个例子”的格式，可以快速回想。
Empiricism (Locke, Hume): All knowledge originates in sensory experience. The mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate). Contrast this with a child who learns 'fire is hot' only by touching it — experience first. Empiricism = emphasis on the empirical.
经验论（洛克、休谟）：一切知识都来源于感官经验。心灵在出生时是一块白板。对比一下：一个孩子只有亲手摸过才知道“火是烫的”——经验先行。经验论强调经验的优先性。
Rationalism (Descartes, Leibniz): ary source of knowledge, and we can discover truths independently of experience. Descartes' 'I think, therefore I am' is the model. Rationalism = radical trust in reason.
唯理论（笛卡尔、莱布尼茨）：理性是知识的主要来源，我们可以不依赖经验而发现真理。笛卡尔的“我思故我在”是其典范。唯理论就是对理性的彻底信赖。
Existentialism (Sartre, Kierkegaard): 'Existence precedes essence' — humans are not born with a fixed purpose; they create meaning through choices. The slogan 'You are your choices' captures it. Existentialism gives you both anxiety and absolute freedom.
存在主义（萨特、克尔凯郭尔）：“存在先于本质”——人并非生来就有固定的目的，而是通过选择来创造意义。那句口号“你就是你的选择”一语中的。存在主义同时给予你焦虑与绝对的自由。
Determinism (Spinoza, d'Holbach): Every event is necessitated by prior causes, leaving no room for free will as traditionally understood. Think of a row of dominoes: push the first and the rest fall inevitably. Hard determinism denies free will; soft determinism redefines it.
决定论（斯宾诺莎、霍尔巴赫）：每个事件都由在先的原因所必然决定，传统意义上的自由意志无处容身。想象一排多米诺骨牌：推倒第一块，其余必然倒下。强硬决定论否定自由意志；温和决定论则重新定义自由。
Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill): The moral worth of an action is measured by its contribution to overall utility, i.e. happiness or pleasure. The slogan is 'the greatest good for the greatest number'. Use the 'utility weight scale' image: an act is right if it tips the scale toward more happiness.
功利主义（边沁、密尔）：一个行为的道德价值取决于它对整体功利，即幸福或快乐的贡献。口号是“最大多数人的最大幸福”。画一架“功利天平”：一个行为若能让天平倒向更多幸福，它就是对的。
9. Quick-Memorisation Strategies for Philosophy Terms | 哲学术语速记策略
Your brain holds onto information better when it is active, visual, and connected. The following techniques transform dry vocabulary into mental movies and stories. Test them out as you revise each set of terms, and you will notice your recall speed improving dramatically.
当信息变得活跃、可视且互联时，你的大脑就能更牢固地记住它。以下技巧可以把枯燥的词汇变成脑海中的电影和故事。在复习每组术语时试试这些方法，你会发现自己的回忆速度显著提升。
Etymology Chunking: Break the word into its Greek or Latin roots. For example, 'philosophy' = philo (love) + sophia (wisdom). 'Epistemology' = episteme (knowledge) + logos (study). Creating a 'root dictionary' in your mind gives you a decoder ring for almost any philosophical term.
词源拆解法：把单词拆成希腊或拉丁词根。比如 philosophy = philo（爱）+ sophia（智慧）；epistemology = episteme（知识）+ logos（学问）。在心中建一部“词根词典”，你就拥有了一把破译几乎所有哲
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