📚 Year 11 CIE Biology: Comprehensive Syllabus Breakdown | Year 11 CIE 生物：课程大纲全面解析
Welcome to your complete guide for the Year 11 CIE IGCSE Biology syllabus. Whether you are following the 0610 or 0970 course, this breakdown covers every major topic you will encounter in your final year. We will walk through the assessment structure, clarify the difference between Core and Supplement content, and systematically review the key concepts that could appear on Papers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Understanding the organisation of the syllabus is the first step to boosting your confidence and your grade.
欢迎阅读 Year 11 CIE IGCSE 生物课程大纲完全指南。不论你学习的是 0610 还是 0970 课程，本解析将涵盖最后一学年你会遇到的所有主要课题。我们将梳理评估结构，厘清核心内容与拓展内容的区别，并系统回顾可能在试卷 1、2、3、4、5 和 6 中出现的核心概念。理解课程大纲的组织方式是提升信心、提高成绩的第一步。
1. Assessment Structure and Syllabus Overview | 评估结构与课程大纲概览
All candidates take three papers. For the Core syllabus, you sit Paper 1 (Multiple Choice), Paper 3 (Theory) and either Paper 5 (Practical Test) or Paper 6 (Alternative to Practical). Core grades range from C to G. For the Extended syllabus, which leads to grades A* to G, you sit Paper 2 (Multiple Choice), Paper 4 (Theory) and the same practical option. The syllabus is divided into 21 sections, but they are often grouped into broader themes: Cells and Organisation, Molecules and Enzymes, Plant and Human Physiology, Genetics and Evolution, and Ecology.
所有考生都需参加三份试卷。核心课程考生参加试卷 1（选择题）、试卷 3（理论题）以及试卷 5（实验操作）或试卷 6（实验替代）。核心课程的成绩范围为 C 至 G。拓展课程可获 A* 至 G，考生参加试卷 2（选择题）、试卷 4（理论题）以及相同的实验选项。大纲共分为 21 个章节，但常被归纳为几大主题：细胞与组织层次、分子与酶、植物与人体生理、遗传与进化，以及生态学。
Paper 2 and Paper 4 assess both the Core and Supplement material, so if you are an Extended student, you must be thoroughly familiar with the supplementary learning outcomes. Practical papers evaluate your ability to plan experiments, record data, draw graphs and make conclusions. Throughout this article we refer to the 2023-2025 syllabus; always check for the latest updates on the Cambridge International website.
试卷 2 和试卷 4 同时考查核心与拓展内容，因此拓展课程的学生必须全面掌握补充学习目标。实验试卷评价你设计实验、记录数据、绘制图表和得出结论的能力。本文基于 2023-2025 年大纲撰写，请务必在 Cambridge International 官网上查阅最新信息。
2. Characteristics, Classification and Organisation | 生物特征、分类与组织层次
The seven life processes remembered by MRS GREN (Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, Growth, Reproduction, Excretion, Nutrition) define a living organism. The binomial naming system uses a genus and species name, such as Homo sapiens. Organisms are classified into five kingdoms: Animals, Plants, Fungi, Prokaryotes (bacteria) and Protoctists. You must know the features of each kingdom, including cell structure and nutrition type. Within animals, arthropods are further split into insects, crustaceans, arachnids and myriapods, while vertebrates cover fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
记住 MRS GREN（运动、呼吸、感应、生长、生殖、排泄、营养）这七大生命过程，便可定义一个活的生物体。双名法采用属名和种名，例如 Homo sapiens。生物被分为五个界：动物界、植物界、真菌界、原核生物界（细菌）和原生生物界。你需要了解每个界的特征，包括细胞结构和营养类型。在动物界中，节肢动物进一步分为昆虫、甲壳动物、蛛形纲和多足纲，而脊椎动物则包含鱼类、两栖类、爬行类、鸟类和哺乳类。
mula magnification = image size ÷ actual size. Supplement students also need to convert millimetres to micrometres and interpret scale bars on diagrams.
组织层次从细胞到组织、器官、器官系统，直至生物体。你需要会用公式放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小来计算放大倍数。拓展课程的学生还需能将毫米转换为微米，并解读示意图上的比例尺。
3. Cell Biology and Movement of Substances | 细胞生物学与物质运输
Plant, animal, fungal and bacterial cells all share cytoplasm, a cell membrane, ribosomes and genetic material, but plant cells also have a cellulose cell wall, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts. You must compare these structures and relate them to functions, such as the role of the mitochondrion in aerobic respiration and the role of the nucleus in controlling cell activities. Specialised cells – ciliated cells, root hair cells, xylem vessels, red blood cells – are adapted for particular functions.
植物、动物、真菌和细菌细胞都具有细胞质、细胞膜、核糖体和遗传物质，但植物细胞还有纤维素细胞壁、中央大液泡和叶绿体。你必须比较这些结构并将其与功能联系起来，例如线粒体在有氧呼吸中的作用，以及细胞核在控制细胞活动中的作用。特化细胞——如纤毛细胞、根毛细胞、木质部导管和红细胞——都适应于特定功能。
Substances move across membranes by diffusion, osmosis and active transport. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient. Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane. Active transport moves ions and molecules against a concentration gradient, using energy from respiration. In the Supplement, you must explain the water potential gradient and the effects of osmosis on plant and animal cells, including turgor and plasmolysis.
物质通过扩散、渗透和主动运输穿过细胞膜。扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动，顺浓度梯度进行。渗透是水通过半透膜的扩散。主动运输利用呼吸作用提供的能量，逆浓度梯度移动离子和分子。在拓展部分，你需要解释水势梯度的概念以及渗透对植物和动物细胞的影响，包括膨压和质壁分离。
4. Biological Molecules and Enzymes | 生物分子与酶
You need to recall the chemical elements in carbohydrates (C, H, O), proteins (C, H, O, N, sometimes S) and lipids (C, H, O). Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides made of many glucose units joined together. The Benedict's test identifies reducing sugars, iodine solution tests for starch, biuret reagent detects proteins, and the ethanol emulsion test identifies lipids. Supplement knowledge includes the roles of cellulose and the structure of DNA: a double helix with complementary base pairing (A–T, C–G).
你需要记住碳水化合物（C、H、O）、蛋白质（C、H、O、N，有时含 S）和脂质（C、H、O）的化学元素。淀粉和糖原是由许多葡萄糖单元连接而成的多糖。本尼迪克特试剂可检测还原糖，碘液检测淀粉，双缩脲试剂检测蛋白质，乙醇乳浊液试验则用于鉴定脂质。拓展知识包括纤维素的作用以及 DNA 的结构：双螺旋，碱基互补配对（A–T，C–G）。
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein. They lower activation energy and speed up reactions without being used up. The lock-and-key model explains enzyme specificity. Each enzyme has an optimum temperature and pH; denaturation occurs when the active site loses its shape irreversibly. Temperature initially increases kinetic energy and the rate of collisions, but beyond the optimum the enzyme is denatured. Experimental investigations often use amylase and starch, or catalase and hydrogen peroxide.
酶是由蛋白质构成的生物催化剂。它们降低活化能，加快反应速率，自身却不被消耗。锁钥模型解释了酶的专一性。每种酶都有最适温度和最适 pH；当活性部位不可逆地变形时，就会发生变性。温度起初提高了动能和碰撞频率，但超过最适温度后酶就会变性。实验探究常使用淀粉酶与淀粉，或过氧化氢酶与过氧化氢。
5. Plant Nutrition and Transport | 植物营养与运输
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants manufacture glucose from carbon dioxide and water using light energy. The word equation and the balanced chemical equation must be memorised. For Supplement you also learn symbol equations and the limiting factor concept. The leaf is adapted for photosynthesis with a large surface area, thin shape, palisade layer packed with chloroplasts, and stomata for gas exchange. You need to identify and label waxy cuticle, upper and lower epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, vascular bundle, guard cells and stomata.
光合作用是绿色植物利用光能，从二氧化碳和水制造葡萄糖的过程。你必须熟记其文字方程式以及配平的化学方程式。在拓展部分，还要学习符号方程式和限制因子的概念。叶片的适应特征包括：较大的表面积、薄形结构、富含叶绿体的栅栏组织层，以及用于气体交换的气孔。你需要辨认并标注蜡质角质层、上下表皮、栅栏组织、海绵组织、维管束、保卫细胞和气孔。
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Xylem transports water and mineral ions from roots to leaves; the movement is explained by transpiration pull. Phloem translocates sucrose and amino acids from sources to sinks. You outline the pathway of water from root hair cells into xylem and through the leaf. Factors that affect transpiration rate include temperature, humidity, light intensity and wind speed. A potometer can measure water uptake, giving an estimate of transpiration rate.
木质部将水和矿质离子从根部运输到叶片，这一运动可用蒸腾拉力来解释。韧皮部将蔗糖和氨基酸从源运输到库。你需要概述水从根毛细胞进入木质部，再穿过叶片的路径。影响蒸腾速率的因素包括温度、湿度、光照强度和风速。蒸腾计可以测量吸水速率，从而估算蒸腾速率。
6. Human Nutrition and Digestion | 人类营养与消化
A balanced diet contains carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, water and dietary fibre. You should know the sources, functions and deficiency diseases associated with vitamins A, C, D and the minerals calcium and iron. Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion are the stages of nutrition. Mechanical digestion occurs in the mouth (teeth) and stomach (churning). Chemical digestion involves enzymes: amylase breaks down starch to maltose, protease breaks down protein to amino acids, and lipase digests fats to fatty acids and glycerol. Bile emulsifies fats, increasing surface area for lipase.
均衡膳食包含碳水化合物、蛋白质、脂类、维生素、矿物质、水和膳食纤维。你需要了解维生素 A、C、D 以及矿物质钙和铁的来源、功能和缺乏症。营养的步骤包括摄食、消化、吸收、同化和排遗。物理消化发生在口腔（牙齿）和胃（搅拌）。化学消化涉及酶：淀粉酶将淀粉分解为麦芽糖，蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸，脂肪酶将脂肪消化为脂肪酸和甘油。胆汁乳化脂肪，增大脂肪酶作用的表面积。
Absorption takes place mainly in the small intestine, where villi and microvilli provide a huge surface area. The liver plays a key role in assimilation, storing glucose as glycogen and deaminating excess amino acids. Supplement knowledge includes the roles of the hepatic portal vein and the significance of the lacteal inside each villus for fatty acid and glycerol absorption.
吸收主要在小肠进行，肠绒毛和微绒毛提供了巨大的表面积。肝脏在同化中起关键作用，将葡萄糖储存为糖原并对多余的氨基酸进行脱氨作用。拓展知识包括肝门静脉的作用，以及每根绒毛内乳糜管对脂肪酸和甘油吸收的重要性。
7. Transport in Animals and Gas Exchange | 动物运输与气体交换
The circulatory system of mammals is a double, closed system. You must label the heart chambers (right and left atria, right and left ventricles), valves and major blood vessels (vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, aorta). The cardiac cycle involves systole and diastole. You explain how exercise affects heart rate and investigate the effect using a pulse rate practical. Coronary heart disease and risk factors (diet, stress, smoking) are essential topics.
哺乳动物的循环系统是一个双循环的封闭系统。你需要标注心腔（左右心房、左右心室）、瓣膜和主要血管（腔静脉、肺动脉、肺静脉、主动脉）。心动周期包括收缩期和舒张期。你需要解释运动如何影响心率，并借助脉搏速率实验进行探究。冠心病及其危险因素（饮食、压力、吸烟）也是必考主题。
The blood comprises red cells transporting oxygen, white cells defending against pathogens, platelets for clotting, and plasma carrying nutrients, hormones and waste. Gas exchange in humans takes place in the alveoli; their thin walls, large surface area and dense capillary network promote rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Supplement students should name the intercostal muscles and diaphragm and explain their role in ventilation, including the changes in thoracic volume and pressure.
血液由运输氧的红细胞、抵御病原体的白细胞、负责凝血的血小板以及运输营养物质、激素和废物的血浆组成。人体气体交换发生在肺泡；肺泡壁薄、表面积大且毛细血管网密集，促进了氧气和二氧化碳的快速扩散。拓展课程的学生需说出肋间肌和膈肌的名称，并解释它们在通气中的作用，包括胸腔容积和压力的变化。
8. Respiration and Excretion | 呼吸作用与排泄
Aerobic respiration releases a large amount of energy from glucose using oxygen. The word equation and the balanced chemical equation are required, as is the role of ATP in supplying energy for cellular activities. Anaerobic respiration releases less energy without oxygen; in muscles it produces lactic acid, while in yeast it produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. Supplement students compare the energy yields and explain the oxygen debt.
有氧呼吸利用氧气从葡萄糖中释放大量能量。你需要掌握文字方程式和配平的化学方程式，还有 ATP 在为细胞活动供能中的作用。无氧呼吸在无氧条件下释放较少能量；在肌肉中产生乳酸，而在酵母中则产生乙醇和二氧化碳。拓展课程的学生需比较这两者的能量产量，并解释氧债。
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products. The lungs excrete carbon dioxide, the skin excretes excess mineral ions and water via sweating, and the kidneys excrete urea and excess water and ions. The urinary system consists of kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. A nephron filters blood under high pressure, reabsorbs all glucose, most water and some salts, and secretes excess ions. Ultra-filtration and selective reabsorption are key processes. ADH controls water reabsorption; Supplement knowledge includes the roles of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
排泄是指代谢废物的去除。肺排出二氧化碳，皮肤通过出汗排出多余的矿物离子和水分，而肾则排出尿素以及多余的水和离子。泌尿系统由肾脏、输尿管、膀胱和尿道组成。肾单位在高压下过滤血液，重新吸收全部葡萄糖、大部分水和部分盐，并分泌多余离子。超滤作用和选择性重吸收是核心过程。抗利尿激素 (ADH) 控制水的重吸收；拓展知识包括下丘脑和垂体的作用。
9. Coordination, Response and Homeostasis | 协调、反应与稳态
escribe a reflex arc: stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone → effector → response. A synapse is a gap between neurones where impulses are transmitted chemically by neurotransmitters. The eye is a sense organ; you must label the cornea, iris, lens, retina, optic nerve and ciliary muscles, and explain accommodation and the pupil reflex.
神经系统利用电脉冲产生迅速的反应。你应该标注感觉神经元、联络神经元和运动神经元，并描述反射弧：刺激 → 感受器 → 感觉神经元 → 联络神经元 → 运动神经元 → 效应器 → 反应。突触是神经元之间的间隙，神经递质在此处通过化学方式传递脉冲。眼睛是感觉器官；你必须标注角膜、虹膜、晶状体、视网膜、视神经和睫状肌，并解释调节作用与瞳孔反射。
Hormones are chemical messengers carried in the blood, producing slower, longer-lasting responses. Adrenaline prepares the body for 'fight or flight'. Insulin lowers blood glucose, while glucagon increases it; this maintains homeostasis. In plants, auxin controls phototropism and geotropism. Supplement students explain the mechanism of auxin redistribution in shoots and roots. Homeostasis also extends to temperature regulation, where the skin acts as an effector through sweating, vasodilation and vasoconstriction.
激素是由血液运送的化学信使，能产生较缓慢而持久的反应。肾上腺素使身体做好“战斗或逃跑”的准备。胰岛素降低血糖，而胰高血糖素升高血糖；这维持了稳态。在植物中，生长素控制向光性和向地性。拓展课程的学生需解释生长素在芽与根中重新分配的机制。稳态还包括体温调节，皮肤通过出汗、血管舒张和血管收缩发挥效应器的作用。
10. Reproduction and Inheritance | 生殖与遗传
Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring from one parent. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes, producing variation. You must compare the male and female reproductive systems, labelling the testes, sperm duct, ovaries, oviducts and uterus. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones; Supplement students learn the roles of FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone. Fertilisation, implantation and development of the placenta are essential.
无性生殖由一个亲本产生遗传上完全相同的后代。有性生殖涉及雄配子和雌配子的融合，能产生变异。你必须比较男女两性生殖系统，标注睾丸、输精管、卵巢、输卵管和子宫。月经周期受激素控制；拓展课程的学生需了解 FSH、LH、雌激素和孕激素的作用。受精、着床和胎盘的发育都是核心内容。
Inheritance follows patterns described by monohybrid crosses. Key terms include allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype and phenotype. Use Punnett squares to predict ratios. A pedigree diagram traces inheritance through families. Codominance, such as in ABO blood groups, is a Supplement topic. The structure of DNA leads to protein synthesis: transcription in the nucleus produces mRNA, and translation at the ribosome assembles the polypeptide. A gene mutation is a change in the base sequence.
遗传遵循单基因杂合体杂交所描述的模式。关键术语包括等位基因、显性、隐性、纯合子、杂合子、基因型和表现型。使用庞纳特方格预测比例。系谱图可以追溯家族中的遗传情况。共显性（如 ABO 血型）是拓展主题。DNA 的结构引向蛋白质合成：细胞核中的转录产生 mRNA，核糖体上的翻译则组装多肽。基因突变是碱基序列的改变。
11. Variation, Selection and Evolution | 变异、选择与进化
Variation can be continuous (controlled by multiple genes and environment) or discontinuous (controlled by a single gene). Mutation, meiosis and random mating are sources of genetic variation. Natural selection, first described by Charles Darwin, states that individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these alleles to the next generation. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a powerful example.
变异可以是连续的（受多基因和环境控制）或不连续的（受单一基因控制）。突变、减数分裂和随机交配是遗传变异的来源。查尔斯·达尔文首先描述的自然选择学说指出，具有有利性状的个体更可能存活和繁殖，并将这些等位基因传给下一代。细菌的抗生素耐药性就是一个有力的例证。
Selective breeding (artificial selection) involves choosing parents with desired characteristics. This reduces genetic diversity and can lead to inherited health problems. Evolution is the gradual change in heritable characteristics over time. Evidence includes fossils, homologous structures and DNA comparison. Supplement students should explain the development of resistant populations and understand the process of speciation through isolation.
选择育种（人工选择）涉及挑选具有理想特征的亲本。这会降低遗传多样性，并可能引发遗传性健康问题。进化是遗传特征随时间逐渐改变的过程。证据包括化石、同源结构和 DNA 比较。拓展课程的学生应能解释耐药种群的产生，并理解通过隔离导致物种形成的过程。
12. Ecology, Human Impacts and Biotechnology | 生态学、人类影响与生物技术
Ecosystems consist of a community of organisms interacting with their environment. Food chains and food webs show energy transfer. At each trophic level, energy is lost through respiration, egestion and uneaten parts. The carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle are vital; you must name decomposers, nitrifying, denitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Deforestation, greenhouse effect and pollution are major human influences. You need to explain the consequences of habitat destruction and the importance of sustainable resource use.
生态系统由生物群落及其与环境相互作用组成。食物链和食物网展示了能量传递。在每个营养级，能量通过呼吸、排遗和未被捕食的部分而损失。碳循环和氮循环至关重要；你必须说出分解者、硝化细菌、反硝化细菌和固氮细菌的名称。森林砍伐、温室效应和污染是主要的人类影响。你需要解释栖息地破坏的后果以及可持续资源利用的重要性。
Biotechnology harnesses organisms for useful purposes. Yeast is used in bread-making (carbon dioxide causes the dough to rise) and in beer production (ethanol). Bacteria produce yoghurt from milk. Penicillin is an antibiotic from Penicillium fungus. Genetic engineering transfers genes between organisms: insulin is now produced by genetically modified bacteria. Supplement students also outline the process of fermenter operation in large-scale production and evaluate the advantages and risks of GM crops.
生物技术利用生物达到有用目的。酵母用于面包制作（二氧化碳使面团膨胀）和啤酒酿造（产生乙醇）。细菌将牛奶变成酸奶。青霉素是从青霉菌中提取的抗生素。基因工程能在生物之间转移基因：如今胰岛素由转基因细菌生产。拓展课程的学生还需概述大规模生产中的发酵罐运作过程，并评估转基因作物的优势与风险。
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