📚 Year 10 SQA Psychology: Quick Reference Handbook of Key Formulas & Theorems | SQA 心理学公式定理速查手册
This handbook compiles the essential formulas, theorems, and key principles you must master for the Year 10 SQA Psychology course. Whether you are reviewing research methods, cognitive models, or social influence theories, this guide presents each concept as a memorable 'formula' to aid quick revision and deep understanding.
本手册汇编了 Year 10 SQA 心理学课程中必须掌握的核心公式、定理与关键原理。无论你是在复习研究方法、认知模型还是社会影响理论，本指南都将每个概念呈现为易于记忆的“公式”，帮助你快速复习并加深理解。
1. Descriptive Statistics Formulas | 描述性统计公式
Mean (Average): The sum of all scores divided by the number of scores. It represents the central tendency of a data set but can be affected by extreme values.
平均数（均值）： 所有分数之和除以分数个数。它代表数据集的集中趋势，但容易受极端值影响。
Mean = Σx / N
Median: The middle value when all scores are arranged in order. For an even number of scores, it is the average of the two middle numbers. The median is less sensitive to outliers than the mean.
中位数： 将所有分数按顺序排列后的中间值。若分数个数为偶数，则为中间两个数的平均值。中位数受异常值的影响小于平均数。
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a data set. There can be one mode (unimodal), two (bimodal), or more. The mode is useful for categorical data.
众数： 数据集中出现频率最高的分数。可以有一个众数（单峰）、两个（双峰）或多个。众数适用于分类数据。
Range: A measure of dispersion calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest scores. It gives a quick sense of spread but is affected by outliers.
范围（极差）： 一种离散程度的度量，等于最高分与最低分之差。它能快速反映数据的分散程度，但同样受异常值影响。
Range = Max - Min
Standard Deviation (Conceptual): A more precise measure of spread that indicates how much scores typically deviate from the mean. A larger standard deviation means greater variability. At Year 10 level, you need to understand its meaning and be able to interpret it in research contexts.
标准差（概念）： 更精确的离散度量，表示分数通常偏离平均数的程度。标准差越大，变异性越大。在 Year 10 阶段，你需要理解其含义并能在研究情境中解读它。
SD = √(Σ(x - mean)² / N)
2. Miller's Law: The Magical Number 7 ± 2 | 米勒定律：神奇数字 7 ± 2
George Miller (1956) proposed that the capacity of short-term memory (STM) is approximately 7 items, plus or minus 2. This 'theorem' explains why we can hold about 5 to 9 chunks of information at once before forgetting or displacement occurs.
乔治·米勒（1956）提出，短期记忆（STM）的容量约为 7 个项目，加减 2。这个“定理”解释了为什么我们在遗忘或被替代之前，一次大约能保持 5 到 9 个信息组块。
STM Capacity = 7 ± 2 chunks
The concept of 'chunking' allows us to combine individual pieces of information into meaningful larger units, effectively expanding memory performance without changing the underlying capacity limit.
“组块化”的概念使我们能将单个信息组合成有意义的大单元，从而在不改变基本容量限制的情况下，有效提升记忆表现。
3. Atkinson & Shiffrin Multi-Store Model | 阿特金森-谢夫林多存储模型
The model describes memory as a flow of information through three separate and sequential stores. Information moves from one store to the next only if certain conditions are met.
该模型将记忆描述为信息流经三个独立且顺序连接的存储系统的过程。只有满足特定条件，信息才能从一个存储库转移到下一个。
Sensory Register → Attention → Short-Term Memory → Rehearsal → Long-Term Memory
Sensory Register: Holds an exact copy of sensory information for a very brief duration (iconic memory: less than 1 second; echoic memory: a few seconds). Attention is required to pass information to STM.
感觉登记： 以极短时间保持感觉信息的精确副本（图像记忆：小于1秒；声像记忆：几秒）。需要注意力才能将信息传递至短期记忆。
Short-Term Memory (STM): mited duration (around 18-30 seconds without rehearsal). Information is mainly encoded acoustically. Maintenance rehearsal can keep information in STM and transfer it to LTM.
短期记忆（STM）： 容量有限（7±2 组块）且持续时间短（无复述时约18-30秒）。信息主要以听觉编码。维持性复述可以将信息保持在 STM 中并转移至长期记忆。
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Potentially unlimited capacity and duration. Information is stored semantically (by meaning). Forgetting from LTM is primarily due to interference or retrieval failure, not decay.
长期记忆（LTM）： 容量和持续时间几乎无限。信息以语义编码（按意义）存储。长期记忆的遗忘主要源于干扰或提取失败，而非衰退。
Key Theorem: For information to enter LTM permanently, it must be rehearsed elaboratively; otherwise it decays or is displaced by incoming information.
关键定理：信息必须经过精细复述才能永久进入长期记忆；否则就会衰退或被新信息替代。
4. Baddeley & Hitch Working Memory Model | 巴德利-希奇工作记忆模型
This model replaces the concept of a single STM with a multi-component working memory system. A central executive directs attention and coordinates three slave systems.
该模型用一个多成分的工作记忆系统取代了单一短期记忆的概念。中央执行系统负责引导注意力并协调整三个从属系统。
Central Executive ↔ Phonological Loop + Visuospatial Sketchpad + Episodic Buffer
Phonological Loop: Deals with auditory and verbal information. It has a phonological store (inner ear) and an articulatory rehearsal process (inner voice). Used when you repeat a phone number silently.
语音回路： 处理听觉和言语信息。包含语音存储装置（内耳）和发音复述过程（内音）。当你默念电话号码时便使用它。
Visuospatial Sketchpad: Processes visual and spatial information (inner eye). It helps you navigate a room or mentally rotate objects.
视空间模板： 处理视觉和空间信息（内眼）。帮助你记住房间布局或在脑中旋转物体。
Episodic Buffer: A temporary store that integrates information from different sources and links working memory to long-term memory. Added later by Baddeley in 2000.
情景缓冲器： 一个临时存储区，整合来自不同来源的信息，并将工作记忆与长期记忆连接起来。巴德利于2000年新增。
The Central Executive is the 'boss' of the system. It allocates attention but has no storage capacity of its own. Evidence from dual-task studies supports the model's separations.
中央执行系统是整个系统的“负责人”。它分配注意力，但自身不具存储能力。双任务实验证据支持了该模型各成分的分离。
5. Theories of Forgetting | 遗忘理论
Interference Theory: Forgetting occurs because other memories disrupt retrieval. Two forms of interference work like opposing forces.
干扰理论： 遗忘的发生是因为其他记忆干扰了提取。两种干扰形式就像两股相反的力量。
Proactive Interference: Old learning → Disrupts new learning
Retroactive Interference: New learning → Disrupts old learning
For example, remembering a new phone number (new) is hampered by the old number you still recall (proactive), and learning a new address can make it harder to recall your previous one (retroactive).
例如，记住新手机号（新学习）受到还能想起的旧号码的干扰（前摄干扰）；学会新地址可能使你更难回忆旧地址（倒摄干扰）。
Decay Theory: Memory traces simply fade over time if they are not used. Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve shows rapid initial forgetting followed by a gradual levelling off.
衰退理论： 记忆痕迹如果不使用就会随时间淡化。艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线显示了初期快速遗忘，随后逐渐平缓的趋势。
Retention decreases as a logarithmic function of time
Retrieval Failure (Cue-Dependent Forgetting): Information is stored in LTM but cannot be accessed because suitable retrieval cues are absent. Context- and state-dependent cues act as keys to unlock memories.
提取失败（线索依赖遗忘）： 信息储存在长期记忆中，但因缺乏合适的提取线索而无法获取。情境和状态依赖线索就像开启记忆之锁的钥匙。
6. Classical Conditioning Formula | 经典条件反射公式
Pavlov's discovery describes how a neutral stimulus can acquire the ability to elicit a response through association. The process can be broken down into clear stages.
巴甫洛夫的发现描述了中性刺激如何通过联结获得引发反应的能力。这个过程可以分解为清晰的阶段。
Before Conditioning: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation)
During Conditioning: NS (bell) + UCS (food) → UCR (salivation)
After Conditioning: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)
Key concepts: Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, and the CR gradually diminishes. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period. Generalisation means responding to stimuli similar to the CS, while discrimination is learning to respond only to the specific CS.
关键概念：当条件刺激（CS）在没有无条件刺激（UCS）的情况下反复出现，条件反射（CR）逐渐减弱，这就是消退。已消退的条件反应在休息后重新出现称为自然恢复。泛化指对与条件刺激相似的刺激作出反应，而分化则是学会只对特定条件刺激作出反应。
7. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement & Punishment | 操作条件反射：强化与惩罚
Skinner's principle states that behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Voluntary actions can be increased or decreased through four consequence types.
斯金纳的原理指出，行为由其后果塑造和维持。自愿行为可通过四种后果类型得以增加或减少。
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behaviour (e.g. giving a sticker for raising a hand in class).
正强化： 增加一个愉快的刺激以提高行为频率（例如，课堂上举手回答后奖励贴纸）。
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behaviour (e.g. turning off a loud alarm by pressing a button). Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.
负强化： 移除一个不愉快的刺激以提高行为频率（例如，按下按钮关闭吵人的闹钟）。注意：负强化不是惩罚。
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour (e.g. scolding a dog for chewing shoes).
正惩罚： 增加一个不愉快的刺激以降低行为频率（例如，因狗咬鞋子而训斥它）。
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour (e.g. taking away a teenager's phone for breaking curfew).
负惩罚： 移除一个愉快的刺激以降低行为频率（例如，因违反宵禁而没收青少年的手机）。
Reinforcers can be primary (satisfy biological needs) or secondary (learned through association). Schedules of reinforcement (continuous, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio) affect response rates and extinction.
强化物可以是初级强化物（满足生理需求）或次级强化物（通过学习联结获得）。强化程序（连续、固定比率、变动比率）影响反应速率和消退速度。
8. Bandura's Social Learning Theory: Modelling Formula | 班杜拉社会学习理论：观察学习公式
Bandura argued that people learn not only through direct reinforcement but also by observing others (models). The modelling process involves four mediational steps.
班杜拉认为，人们不仅通过直接强化学习，还通过观察他人（榜样）进行学习。榜样示范过程包含四个中介步骤。
Attention → Retention → Reproduction → Motivation (ARRM)
Attention: The observer must pay attention to the model's behaviour. Influenced by model's attractiveness, status, and similarity.
注意： 观察者必须关注榜样的行为。受榜样的吸引力、地位和相似性影响。
Retention: The behaviour must be remembered. Mental images or verbal descriptions are stored.
保持： 必须记住行为。储存的是心理图像或言语描述。
Reproduction: The observer must be physically and mentally capable of replicating the behaviour.
动作复现： 观察者需具备复制该行为的身体和心理能力。
Motivation: There must be a reason to perform the behaviour, such as expecting a reward (vicarious reinforcement) or avoiding punishment.
动机： 必须有执行该行为的理由，如预期获得奖励（替代强化）或避免惩罚。
The BoBo doll experiment (1961) supported this theory: children who saw an aggressive model were more likely to imitate physical and verbal aggression, especially when the model was rewarded.
波波玩偶实验（1961）支持了这一理论：观看攻击性
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