📚 Year 11 OCR Psychology: Core Knowledge Summary | 核心知识点梳理
This revision guide consolidates the essential topics of the Year 11 OCR GCSE Psychology course. It covers key theories, landmark studies, research methods, and applications to help you prepare efficiently for your examinations.
这份复习指南梳理了 Year 11 OCR GCSE 心理学的核心主题。涵盖关键理论、里程碑式研究、研究方法及应用，帮助你高效备考。
1. Research Methods and Experimental Design | 研究方法与实验设计
Psychology is evidence-based, and a clear understanding of research methods is essential for evaluating any study.
心理学以证据为基础，清晰理解研究方法是评估任何研究的关键。
An independent variable (IV) is the factor manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable (DV) is the measured outcome.
自变量 (IV) 是研究者操纵的因素，因变量 (DV) 是被测量的结果。
Extraneous variables must be controlled to avoid confounding results; standardised procedures and random allocation help achieve this.
必须控制额外变量以避免混淆结果；标准化程序和随机分配有助于实现这一点。
In an independent groups design, different participants are used in each condition. This avoids order effects but may be affected by participant variables.
在独立组设计中，每个条件使用不同被试。这避免了顺序效应，但可能受到被试变量的影响。
Repeated measures design uses the same participants in all conditions, reducing participant variables but risking order effects such as practice or fatigue.
重复测量设计在所有条件中使用同一批被试，减少了被试变量，但存在练习或疲劳等顺序效应的风险。
A matched pairs design matches participants on key traits, combining the strengths of independent groups and repeated measures, though it can be time-consuming.
配对设计根据关键特征匹配被试，兼取独立组与重复测量之长，但可能较耗时。
Hypotheses state predictions; a null hypothesis predicts no difference or relationship, while an alternative hypothesis predicts a difference or relationship.
假设给出预测；零假设预测无差异或关系，备择假设预测存在差异或关系。
Sampling techniques include random, opportunity, systematic, and stratified sampling. Stratified sampling mirrors the target population's proportions and improves representativeness.
抽样方法包括随机、机会、系统与分层抽样。分层抽样反映目标群体比例，提升了代表性。
2. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure.
从众是因真实或想象的群体压力而改变行为或信念。
Asch (1951) demonstrated conformity through a line judgement task with confederates giving wrong answers. About 37% of responses conformed, and 75% of participants conformed at least once.
Asch (1951) 通过线段判断任务证明了从众，同盟者故意给出错误答案。约 37% 的反应从众，75% 的被试至少从众一次。
Conformity increased with larger group sizes up to about four, was reduced by a dissenting partner, and became stronger when the task was difficult.
当团体规模增至约四人时从众增加，一个持不同意见的同伴可减弱从众，任务难度加大时从众增强。
Obedience involves following direct commands. Milgram (1963) found that 65% of participants delivered the maximum 450-volt shock when instructed by an authority figure.
服从涉及遵从直接命令。Milgram (1963) 发现 65% 的被试在权威人物指令下施加了最高 450 伏电击。
Factors influencing obedience included the physical presence of the authority, proximity of the learner, institutional context, and diffusion of responsibility.
影响服从的因素包括权威人物的在场、学习者的接近性、机构背景和责任分散。
Social influence research raises significant ethical issues, particularly due to deception and psychological stress, yet it provides profound insights into human behaviour in social contexts.
社会影响研究引发了重大的伦理问题，尤其是欺骗与心理压力，但它为理解社会情境中的人类行为提供了深刻洞见。
3. Memory: Models and Key Studies | 记忆：模型与关键研究
The multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) describes three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves via attention and rehearsal.
多储存模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) 描述了三种记忆储存：感觉记忆、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息通过注意和复述转移。
s, as shown by Miller (1956), and a brief duration of around 18 seconds without rehearsal (Peterson & Peterson, 1959).
STM 容量有限，为 7±2 个项目 (Miller, 1956)，且在没有复述的情况下持续时间约 18 秒 (Peterson & Peterson, 1959)。
LTM is assumed to have unlimited capacity and duration, coding information semantically. The distinction between STM and LTM is supported by the serial position effect.
LTM 被认为有无限的容量和持续时间，以语义编码信息。系列位置效应支持了 STM 和 LTM 之间的区分。
Bartlett (1932) argued memory is reconstructive. In the 'War of the Ghosts' study, participants altered details to fit their cultural schemas, showing memory is not a passive copy but an active reconstruction.
Bartlett (1932) 主张记忆是重构性的。在 "War of the Ghosts" 研究中，被试改变细节以符合文化图式，表明记忆并非被动拷贝，而是主动重构。
The working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) offers a more detailed view of STM, with a central executive supervising the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad, later joined by the episodic buffer.
工作记忆模型 (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) 提供了对 STM 更精细的视角，中央执行系统监督语音回路和视空间画板，后来加入了情节缓冲器。
4. Attachment: Theories and Strange Situation | 依恋：理论与陌生情境
Attachment is a deep emotional bond between an infant and caregiver. Bowlby proposed it is innate and serves a survival function.
依恋是婴儿与照料者之间深刻的情感联结。Bowlby 提出它是天生的，具有生存功能。
Bowlby's theory emphasised monotropy (a primary attachment figure), a critical period (up to 2.5 years), and the internal working model that shapes future relationships.
Bowlby 的理论强调单调性 (一个主要依恋对象)、关键期 (约至 2.5 岁) 以及塑造未来关系的内部工作模型。
Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1978) identified three attachment types: secure (explores, seeks comfort, ~65%), insecure-avoidant (ignores caregiver, ~20%), and insecure-resistant (clingy yet rejecting, ~15%).
Ainsworth 的陌生情境 (1978) 识别了三种依恋类型：安全型 (探索、寻求安慰，约65%)、不安全回避型 (忽视照料者，约20%) 和不安全矛盾型 (粘人又拒绝，约15%)。
Cross-cultural variations exist: secure attachment is the most common across cultures, but the distribution of insecure types varies, supporting both universality and cultural sensitivity.
存在跨文化差异：安全型依恋在所有文化中最普遍，但不安全类型的分布各异，这既支持了普遍性也支持了文化敏感性。
Animal studies, such as Harlow's monkey experiments (contact comfort over food) and Lorenz's gosling imprinting, highlighted the biological basis of attachment and the importance of early experience.
动物研究，如 Harlow 的猴子实验 (接触安慰优于食物) 和 Lorenz 的幼鹅印刻，突显了依恋的生物学基础和早期经验的重要性。
5. Criminal Psychology: Profiling and Biology | 犯罪心理学：画像与生物学
Criminal profiling aids investigations by inferring offender characteristics from crime scene evidence. The top-down approach uses pre-established typologies from experienced profilers.
犯罪画像根据犯罪现场证据推断罪犯特征以协助调查。自上而下的方法使用经验丰富画像师预先建立的分类。
The bottom-up approach relies on statistical analyses, such as geographical profiling and investigative psychology, to build a profile from real data. John Duffy's case exemplified its use.
自下而上的方法依赖统计分析，如地理画像和侦查心理学，根据真实数据构建画像。John Duffy 的案件就是其应用范例。
Biological explanations of crime point to genetic predispositions, abnormalities in brain areas like the prefrontal cortex (linked to impulse control), and low levels of serotonin.
犯罪的生物学解释指出遗传易感性、前额叶皮层等脑区异常 (与冲动控制有关) 以及血清素水平低下。
Social learning theory explains criminal behaviour as learned through observation, modelling, and reinforcement of deviant norms, highlighting the role of environment.
社会学习理论将犯罪行为解释为通过观察、模仿和对越轨规范的强化习得，强调了环境的作用。
Punishment aims to deter crime, while rehabilitation programmes target the underlying causes, such as cognitive-behavioural therapy to change thinking patterns.
惩罚旨在威慑犯罪，而改造方案则针对根本原因，例如运用认知行为疗法改变思维模式。
6. Psychological Problems: Depression and Therapies | 心理问题：抑郁症与治疗
Depression is a mood disorder characterised by persistent low mood, loss of interest, and changes in cognition and physiology.
抑郁症是一种心境障碍，表现为持续的情绪低落、兴趣减退以及认知和生理的改变。
Biological explanations include imbalances in serotonin and noradrenaline, and a genetic component shown by higher concordance in identical twins.
生物学解释包括血清素和去甲肾上腺素的失衡，以及同卵双生子的较高一致率所显示的遗传因素。
Beck's cognitive theory proposes a negative triad: negative views of the self, the world, and the future. Ellis's ABC model highlights how irrational beliefs lead to emotional disturbance.
Beck 的认知理论提出了负性三联体：对自我、世界和未来的消极看法。Ellis 的 ABC 模型强调非理性信念如何导致情绪困扰。
Wiles et al. (2013) found that combined CBT and medication significantly reduced depressive symptoms, supporting the effectiveness of psychological therapy.
Wiles 等人 (2013) 发现认知行为疗法联合药物治疗显著减轻了抑郁症状，支持了心理治疗的有效性。
Treatment for depression includes SSRIs that increase serotonin availability in the synapse, and CBT that challenges and restructures negative thinking patterns.
抑郁症的治疗包括 SSRIs 增加突触中血清素的可用性，以及 CBT 挑战并重建消极思维模式。
7. The Brain, Neurons and Behaviour | 大脑、神经元与行为
Neurons are composed of dendrites, a cell body, an axon, and terminal buttons. The axon is often insulated by a myelin sheath to speed up transmission.
神经元由树突、细胞体、轴突和终扣组成。轴突常由髓鞘绝缘以加快传递速度。
Neurotransmission occurs at the synapse. An electrical impulse triggers neurotransmitter release, which crosses the synaptic gap and binds to receptors on the next neuron.
神经传递发生在突触处。电冲动触发神经递质释放，它们穿过突触间隙并与下一个神经元的受体结合。
The frontal lobe governs decision-making and impulse control; the temporal lobe processes auditory information and memory; the occipital lobe handles vision; the parietal lobe deals with spatial awareness and touch.
额叶负责决策和冲动控制；颞叶处理听觉信息和记忆；枕叶处理视觉；顶叶负责空间感知和触觉。
Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and reorganise throughout life. Maguire et al. (2000) found increased posterior hippocampal volume in London taxi drivers, linked to navigation experience.
脑可塑性指大脑终身改变和重组的能力。Maguire 等人 (2000) 发现伦敦出租车司机后海马体积增大，与此相关的导航经验有关。
Brain scanning techniques like MRI provide detailed structural images, while fMRI measures blood flow to show brain activity during tasks.
脑扫描技术如 MRI 提供详细的结构图像，而 fMRI 通过测量血流显示任务期间的大脑活动。
8. Data Handling and Descriptive Statistics | 数据处理与描述统计
Quantitative data is numerical and easy to analyse statistically; qualitative data is non-numerical, capturing depth and detail.
定量数据是数字型的，易于统计分析；定性数据是非数字的，捕捉深度和细节。
Measures of central tendency include the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent). The mean can be calculated as:
集中趋势的度量包括平均数、中位数和众数。平均数的计算公式为：
Mean = Σx ÷ n
Dispersion is described by the range (maximum - minimum) and standard deviation, which reflects how spread out scores are around the mean.
离差用极差 (最大值 - 最小值) 和标准差描述，后者反映分数围绕平均数的离散程度。
Bar charts represent categorical data, histograms display frequency distribution of continuous data, and scatter graphs show relationships between two variables.
条形图表示分类数据，直方图显示连续数据的频率分布，散点图展示两个变量之间的关系。
Correlation describes the strength and direction of a relationship. A positive correlation means both variables increase together, a negative correlation means one increases as the other decreases, and zero indicates no linear relationship.
相关描述关系的强度和方向。正相关表示两个变量一起增加，负相关表示一个增加时另一个减少，零相关表示没有线性关系。
Correlation coefficients range from -1 to +1. A value close to +1 or -1 indicates a strong relationship, but correlation does not imply causation.
相关系数范围从 -1 到 +1。接近 +1 或 -1 的值表明强关系，但相关不意味着因果。
9. Ethics and Responsible Research | 伦理与负责任的研究
The British Psychological Society (BPS) sets ethical guidelines including informed consent, avoidance of deception, protection from harm, privacy, and the right to withdraw.
英国心理学会 (BPS) 制定了伦理准则，包括知情同意、避免欺骗、免受伤害、隐私和退出权利。
Deception should be avoided, but if necessary it must be justified and followed by a thorough debriefing explaining the true nature of the study.
应避免欺骗，但若有必要，必须提供正当理由，并通过充分的事后说明解释研究的真实性质。
Confidentiality protects participants' data, and anonymity ensures individuals cannot be identified. Consent forms and parental consent are required for vulnerable groups.
保密保护被试数据，匿名确保无法识别个人。弱势群体需要征得同意书和家长同意。
Animal research is governed by
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