📚 Year 11 OCR Biology: Core Knowledge Review | Year 11 OCR 生物：核心知识点梳理
Welcome to our comprehensive review of the essential topics in Year 11 OCR Biology. This guide distils the core knowledge you need, covering cell biology, bioenergetics, genetics, ecology and more, to support your revision and deepen your understanding of living systems.
欢迎来到我们全面的Year 11 OCR生物核心知识点梳理。这份指南提炼了你需要掌握的核心知识，涵盖细胞生物学、生物能学、遗传学、生态学等主题，为你的复习提供支持并加深对生命系统的理解。
1. Cell Structure and Microscopy | 细胞结构与显微镜
Both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic, sharing a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells additionally possess a rigid cell wall, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts, which enable photosynthesis and structural support.
动植物细胞都是真核细胞，共有细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体。植物细胞额外有坚硬的细胞壁、一个中央大液泡和叶绿体，这使其能进行光合作用并提供结构支撑。
l size, use actual size = image size / magnification, and remember to convert units appropriately.
显微镜计算需要使用公式：总放大倍数 = 目镜放大倍数 × 物镜放大倍数。要测定细胞的实际大小，使用公式 实际大小 = 图像大小 / 放大倍数，并注意适当地转换单位。
Specialised cells show clear adaptations. Sperm cells have a flagellum for movement and many mitochondria for energy, while root hair cells have elongated projections to increase surface area for water and mineral absorption.
特化的细胞表现出明显的适应性。精子细胞有鞭毛用于运动，并有大量线粒体提供能量；根毛细胞则有细长的突起以增大吸收水分和矿物质的表面积。
2. Cell Division and Stem Cells | 细胞分裂与干细胞
Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells for growth, repair and asexual reproduction. The stages in order are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, followed by cytokinesis.
有丝分裂产生两个遗传相同的二倍体子细胞，用于生长、修复和无性生殖。其阶段依次为前期、中期、后期和末期，随后发生胞质分裂。
Meiosis produces four genetically varied haploid gametes. It involves two divisions, halving the chromosome number. Crossing over in prophase I creates new allele combinations, promoting variation.
减数分裂产生四个遗传不同的单倍体配子。它包含两次分裂，使染色体数目减半。前期I中的交叉互换产生新的等位基因组合，促进变异。
Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent and can differentiate into any cell type, raising ethical issues. Adult stem cells, such as those in bone marrow, are multipotent and are already used in treatments like bone marrow transplants for leukaemia.
胚胎干细胞是多能的，能分化成任何细胞类型，这引发了伦理争议。成体干细胞，例如骨髓中的干细胞，是多潜能的，已用于白血病等疾病的骨髓移植治疗。
3. Transport Across Cell Membranes | 跨膜运输
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient. It is a passive process that does not require energy.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域沿浓度梯度向低浓度区域的净移动。这是一个被动过程，不需要能量。
Osmosis is specifically the diffusion of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution (high water potential to low water potential).
渗透特指水分子通过部分透性膜从较稀溶液（高水势）向较浓溶液（低水势）的扩散。
Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient, requiring carrier proteins and energy from respiration in the form of ATP. An example is the uptake of mineral ions by root hair cells from the soil.
主动运输逆浓度梯度移动物质，需要载体蛋白和来自呼吸作用的能量（ATP）。一个例子是根毛细胞从土壤中吸收矿质离子。
4. Tissues, Organs and Systems | 组织、器官与系统
Cells are organised into tissues (groups of similar cells with a shared function), tissues form organs, and organs work together in organ systems. The digestive system is an example of an organ system.
细胞构成组织（具有共同功能的相似细胞群），组织形成器官，器官协同工作构成器官系统。消化系统就是一个器官系统的例子。
Digestive enzymes break down large, insoluble molecules into smaller, soluble ones. Amylase converts starch into maltose, protease breaks down proteins into amino acids, and lipase digests lipids into glycerol and fatty acids.
消化酶将大而不溶的分子分解为较小的可溶性分子。淀粉酶将淀粉转化为麦芽糖，蛋白酶分解蛋白质为氨基酸，脂肪酶将脂质消化为甘油和脂肪酸。
The lock and key model explains that the enzyme's active site has a specific shape complementary to a specific substrate. High temperatures or extremes of pH can denature the enzyme, permanently changing the active site shape and preventing binding.
锁钥模型说明酶的活性部位具有与特定底物互补的特定形状。高温或极端pH会使酶变性，永久改变活性部位的形状，从而阻止底物结合。
5. Infectious Diseases and Immune Response | 传染病与免疫反应
Pathogens include viruses (e.g., measles, HIV), bacteria (e.g., Salmonella, gonorrhoea), fungi (e.g., rose black spot) and protists (e.g., malaria). They are spread via air, water, direct contact or vectors like mosquitoes.
病原体包括病毒（如麻疹、HIV）、细菌（如沙门氏菌、淋病）、真菌（如玫瑰黑斑病）和原生生物（如疟原虫）。它们通过空气、水、直接接触或媒介如蚊子传播。
The body's defences include white blood cells that carry out phagocytosis (engulfing pathogens), produce specific antibodies that bind to antigens, and produce antitoxins that neutralise toxins. Memory cells remain after infection to provide long-term immunity.
人体防御包括白细胞进行的吞噬作用（吞噬病原体）、产生与抗原结合的特异性抗体，以及产生中和毒素的抗毒素。感染后记忆细胞留存，提供长期免疫力。
Vaccines contain dead or weakened pathogens that trigger an immune response, forming memory cells without causing disease. Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of hybridoma cells and are
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