📚 Year 11 AQA Physical Education: Terminology Quick Revision Guide | AQA 体育词汇术语速记指南
Welcome to your quick revision guide for key terminology in Year 11 AQA Physical Education. Mastering the vocabulary is essential for success in your GCSE exam, because marks are awarded for accurate use of technical terms when you describe, explain and evaluate physiological, psychological and socio-cultural concepts. This guide presents the essential terms with clear bilingual definitions, arranged by topic so that you can revise in short, focused blocks.
欢迎使用 AQA 体育 Year 11 关键术语速记指南。掌握词汇对于 GCSE 考试成功至关重要，因为当你描述、解释和评价生理、心理及社会文化概念时，评分标准明确奖励准确使用专业术语。本指南以中英双语提供必备术语及其清晰定义，按专题编排，方便你利用碎片时间进行短时高效复习。
1. Functions and Classification of the Skeleton | 骨骼的功能与分类
Functions of the skeleton: The skeletal system has six main functions - support, protection of vital organs, movement (by providing attachment points and levers for muscles), mineral storage (calcium and phosphorus), blood cell production in the red bone marrow, and shape and structure for the body.
骨骼的功能：骨骼系统有六大功能——支撑、保护重要器官、促进运动（为肌肉提供附着点和杠杆）、储存矿物质（钙和磷）、在红骨髓中制造血细胞，以及赋予身体形状和结构。
Bone classification: Long bones (femur, humerus) act as levers; short bones (carpals, tarsals) give stability with limited movement; flat bones (cranium, ribs, scapula) protect organs and give broad muscle attachment; irregular bones (vertebrae, pelvis) have complex shapes with specific jobs; sesamoid bones (patella) reduce friction and increase leverage.
骨的分类：长骨（股骨、肱骨）起杠杆作用；短骨（腕骨、跗骨）提供稳定但活动度小；扁骨（颅骨、肋骨、肩胛骨）保护器官并提供宽阔的肌肉附着面；不规则骨（椎骨、骨盆）形状复杂、功能专门；籽骨（髌骨）减少摩擦并增大杠杆效应。
Compact and cancellous bone: Compact bone is the dense, hard outer layer that resists stress; cancellous (spongy) bone is the lightweight inner structure containing red bone marrow, where blood cells are produced.
密质骨与松质骨：密质骨是致密坚硬的外层，抵抗压力；松质骨（海绵骨）是内部轻质结构，内含红骨髓，负责造血。
Cranium: The bone that forms the head and protects the brain.
颅骨：构成头部并保护大脑的骨头。
Vertebrae: The series of small bones forming the backbone, protecting the spinal cord, supporting the head and allowing bending and twisting.
椎骨：构成脊柱的一系列小骨，保护脊髓，支撑头部，并允许身体弯曲和扭转。
Ribs, sternum and clavicle: The rib cage (ribs plus sternum) protects the heart and lungs; the clavicle (collar bone) connects the scapula to the sternum and keeps the shoulder in place.
肋骨、胸骨与锁骨：胸廓（肋骨加胸骨）保护心脏与肺；锁骨把肩胛骨连接到胸骨，固定肩部位置。
Limbs: Humerus, radius and ulna in the arm; carpals, metacarpals and phalanges in the hand; pelvis, femur, patella, tibia and fibula in the leg; tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges in the foot.
四肢：上肢有肱骨、桡骨、尺骨；手部有腕骨、掌骨、指骨；下肢有骨盆、股骨、髌骨、胫骨、腓骨；足部有跗骨、跖骨、趾骨。
2. Joints, Connective Tissue and Movement | 关节、结缔组织与运动
Joint: A place where two or more bones meet. The three main categories are immovable (fibrous, e.g. the cranium), slightly movable (cartilaginous, e.g. the vertebrae) and freely movable (synovial, e.g. the knee).
关节：两块或以上骨头相接的部位。三大类是：不动关节（纤维关节，如颅骨）、微动关节（软骨关节，如椎骨）和自由活动关节（滑膜关节，如膝关节）。
Hinge joint: A joint that allows movement in one plane only, like the elbow and knee (flexion and extension).
铰链关节：只允许在一个平面内运动的关节，如肘和膝关节（屈曲和伸展）。
Ball and socket joint: A joint where the rounded head of one bone fits into the cup-shaped socket of another, allowing movement in multiple planes, e.g. shoulder and hip.
球窝关节：一个骨头的圆形头嵌入另一个骨头的杯状窝内，允许多平面运动，如肩关节和髋关节。
Other synovial joints: Pivot (atlas and axis in the neck - rotation), condyloid (wrist - flexion, extension, abduction, adduction), gliding (between carpals and tarsals - small sliding movements) and saddle (base of the thumb - two planes of movement).
其他滑膜关节：枢轴关节（颈部寰枢关节——旋转）、椭圆关节（腕关节——屈伸、外展内收）、平面关节（腕骨与跗骨之间——小幅滑动）和鞍状关节（拇指基部——两个运动平面）。
Connective tissues: Ligaments join bone to bone and stabilise joints; tendons join muscle to bone and transmit force; cartilage cushions bone ends and reduces friction; the synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint and supplies nutrients; the joint capsule surrounds the synovial joint; bursae are fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between moving parts.
结缔组织：韧带连接骨与骨，稳定关节；肌腱连接肌肉与骨，传递力量；软骨缓冲骨端并减少摩擦；滑膜分泌滑液，润滑关节并提供营养；关节囊包裹滑膜关节；滑囊是充满液体的囊，减少运动部件之间的摩擦。
Movement terminology: Flexion decreases the angle at a joint; extension increases it; abduction moves a limb away from the midline; adduction brings it back towards the midline; rotation turns a bone around its own axis; circumduction combines flexion, extension, abduction and adduction in a cone shape; plantar flexion points the toes down; dorsiflexion pulls the toes up.
运动术语：屈曲减小关节角度；伸展增大关节角度；外展使肢体远离身体中线；内收使肢体靠近中线；旋转是骨绕自身轴转动；环转把屈曲、伸展、外展、内收合成锥形运动；跖屈使脚尖下压；背屈使脚尖上勾。
Antagonistic muscle action: The agonist (prime mover) contracts to produce movement, the antagonist relaxes and lengthens to allow it, and the fixator stabilises the origin of the agonist so the movement is efficient.
拮抗肌作用：主动肌（原动肌）收缩产生运动，拮抗肌放松并拉长以允许运动发生，固定肌稳定主动肌的起点，使动作高效完成。
3. Muscular System: Major Muscles and Fibre Types | 肌肉系统：主要肌肉与肌纤维类型
Major muscles: Deltoid (shoulder abduction), pectoralis major (adduction and flexion at the shoulder), latissimus dorsi (extension and adduction at the shoulder), biceps brachii (flexion at the elbow), triceps brachii (extension at the elbow), abdominals (trunk flexion), obliques (trunk rotation), trapezius (shoulder elevation), gluteals (hip extension), quadriceps (knee extension), hamstrings (knee flexion), gastrocnemius (plantar flexion), tibialis anterior (dorsiflexion).
主要肌肉：三角肌（肩外展）、胸大肌（肩内收与屈）、背阔肌（肩伸与内收）、肱二头肌（屈肘）、肱三头肌（伸肘）、腹直肌（躯干屈曲）、腹外斜肌（躯干旋转）、斜方肌（提肩）、臀大肌（伸髋）、股四头肌（伸膝）、腘绳肌（屈膝）、腓肠肌（跖屈）、胫骨前肌（背屈）。
Type I fibres (slow oxidative): Small motor neurone, high capillary and mitochondria density, resistant to fatigue. They generate low force but are ideal for endurance events such as marathon running and long-distance cycling.
I 型肌纤维（慢缩氧化型）：运动神经元小、毛细血管和线粒体密度高、抗疲劳。产生的力量小，但适合马拉松、长距离自行车等耐力项目。
Type IIa fibres (fast oxidative glycolytic): A hybrid fibre with moderate fatigue resistance and moderate force, used in events such as 800 m and 1500 m running where both power and endurance are needed.
IIa 型肌纤维（快缩氧化酵解型）：混合型纤维，抗疲劳能力和力量输出中等，适合 800 米、1500 米跑等既需力量又需耐力的项目。
Type IIx fibres (fast glycolytic): Large motor neurone, low mitochondria density, high force with rapid fatigue; dominant in sprinting, jumping and throwing.
IIx 型肌纤维（快缩酵解型）：运动神经元大、线粒体密度低、力量大但易疲劳；在短跑、跳跃和投掷项目中占主导。
4. Types of Muscle Contraction | 肌肉收缩类型
Isometric contraction: The muscle contracts and increases tension but does not change length, so no movement occurs at the joint. Example: holding a plank or a wall sit.
等长收缩：肌肉收缩并增加张力，但长度不变，因此关节不产生运动。例如平板支撑或靠墙静蹲。
Isotonic concentric contraction: The muscle shortens under tension, producing movement and generating force. Example: the biceps brachii during the upward phase of a biceps curl.
等张向心收缩：肌肉在张力下缩短，产生运动并输出力量。例如肱二头肌在弯举的上举阶段。
Isotonic eccentric contraction: The muscle lengthens under tension while still producing force, which controls the movement and helps prevent injury. Example: the biceps brachii during the downward phase of a biceps curl, or the quadriceps when landing from a jump.
等张离心收缩：肌肉在张力下拉长，同时仍输出力量，控制动作并帮助预防损伤。例如肱二头肌在弯举的放下阶段，或落地时的股四头肌。
Antagonistic pairs in action: During elbow flexion the biceps brachii is the agonist and the triceps brachii is the antagonist; during elbow extension the roles reverse. This reciprocal inhibition is controlled by the nervous system.
拮抗肌对的实际应用：屈肘时肱二头肌是主动肌、肱三头肌是拮抗肌；伸肘时角色互换。这种交互抑制由神经系统控制。
5. Respiratory System Terminology | 呼吸系统术语
Pathway of air: . The nasal cavity warms, moistens and filters the air; the alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange.
空气通路：鼻腔 → 咽 → 喉 → 气管 → 支气管 → 细支气管 → 肺泡。鼻腔温暖、湿润并过滤空气；肺泡是气体交换的场所。
Inspiration (breathing in): The diaphragm contracts and flattens, the external intercostals contract to raise the ribs, the thoracic cavity volume increases and pressure decreases, so air is drawn in. This is an active process.
吸气：膈肌收缩变平，外肋间肌收缩上提肋骨，胸腔容积增大、压力下降，空气被吸入。这是主动过程。
Expiration (breathing out): The diaphragm relaxes and domes upwards, the internal intercostals lower the ribs, volume decreases and pressure increases, so air is forced out. At rest this is passive; during exercise the abdominal muscles assist.
呼气：膈肌放松上顶，内肋间肌下拉肋骨，容积减小、压力升高，空气被排出。安静时是被动过程，运动时腹肌参与协助。
Gaseous exchange: Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood because the partial pressure of oxygen is higher in the alveoli; carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli because its partial pressure is higher in the blood. A large surface area, thin walls (one cell thick), a good blood supply and a short diffusion pathway all increase the rate of diffusion.
气体交换：由于肺泡中氧分压更高，氧气从肺泡扩散入血；由于血液中二氧化碳分压更高，二氧化碳从血液扩散入肺泡。表面积大、壁薄（单层细胞）、血供充足、扩散距离短，都能提高扩散速率。
Lung volumes: Tidal volume is the amount of air breathed in or out per breath; vital capacity is the maximum volume that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation; residual volume is the air remaining in the lungs after a maximum exhalation; total lung capacity is vital capacity plus residual volume.
肺容积：潮气量是每次呼吸吸入或呼出的气量；肺活量是最大吸气后能呼出的最大气量；余气量是最大呼气后仍留在肺内的气体量；肺总容量等于肺活量加余气量。
Minute ventilation = tidal volume × breathing frequency
Minute ventilation: The volume of air breathed in or out in one minute, measured in litres per minute (L·min⁻¹). It rises during exercise because both tidal volume and breathing rate increase.
每分通气量：一分钟内吸入或呼出的气体总量，单位为升每分钟（L·min⁻¹）。运动时潮气量和呼吸频率同时上升，故每分通气量增加。
Control of breathing: Chemoreceptors detect increases in carbon dioxide concentration and decreases in blood pH, then send impulses to the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata, which increases the rate and depth of breathing. Proprioceptors in muscles and joints also stimulate breathing at the start of exercise.
呼吸的调节：化学感受器感知二氧化碳浓度升高和血液 pH 下降，向延髓的呼吸中枢发送冲动，从而提高呼吸频率和深度。运动开始时，肌肉和关节中的本体感受器也会刺激呼吸。
6. Cardiovascular System Terminology | 心血管系统术语
Heart structure: The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava; the right ventricle pumps it to the lungs via the pulmonary artery; the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein; the left ventricle pumps it to the body via the aorta. The septum separates the two sides, and valves prevent backflow.
心脏结构：右心房经腔静脉接收缺氧血；右心室经肺动脉把血泵向肺；左心房经肺静脉接收含氧血；左心室经主动脉把血泵向全身。室间隔分隔左右两侧，瓣膜防止血液倒流。
Cardiac conduction: The SA node (pacemaker) initiates the heartbeat; the AV node delays the impulse slightly so the atria empty first; the bundle of His and Purkinje fibres carry the impulse to the ventricles, causing them to contract from the apex upwards.
心脏传导：窦房结（起搏器）发起心跳；房室结轻微延迟冲动，使心房先排空；房室束和浦肯野纤维把冲动传至心室，使心室自心尖向上收缩。
Cardiac output = heart rate × stroke volume
Cardiovascular terms: Heart rate is the number of beats per minute (bpm); stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat (mL); cardiac output is the volume pumped per minute (mL·min⁻¹). During exercise, heart rate and stroke volume both rise, so cardiac output increases substantially.
心血管术语：心率是每分钟心跳次数（bpm）；每搏输出量是左心室每搏射出的血量（mL）；心输出量是每分钟泵出的血量（mL·min⁻¹）。运动时心率和每搏输出量都升高，因此心输出量显著增加。
Blood vessels: Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure and have thick elastic walls; arterioles control blood flow into capillary networks; capillaries are one cell thick for efficient exchange; venules collect blood from capillaries; veins carry blood back to the heart under low pressure and contain pocket valves.
血管：动脉在高压下把血液带离心脏，管壁厚且富有弹性；小动脉控制流入毛细血管网的血量；毛细血管壁仅一层细胞，便于高效交换；小静脉收集毛细血管的血液；静脉在低压下把血液送回心脏，内有静脉瓣。
Vascular shunt mechanism: During exercise, vasodilation increases blood flow to the working muscles while vasoconstriction reduces flow to non-essential areas such as the digestive system, so more oxygen reaches the tissues that need it.
血管分流机制：运动时血管舒张使工作肌肉的血流量增加，血管收缩使消化系统等非必需区域的血流量减少，从而把更多氧气送到真正需要的组织。
Venous return: The return of blood to the heart is helped by the skeletal muscle pump, pocket valves, the suction effect of
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