📚 Year 11 AQA Philosophy: Key Terms Memory Booster | AQA 哲学关键术语速记指南
This comprehensive guide is designed to help Year 11 students memorise and understand the key philosophical terminology required for the AQA GCSE Philosophy exam. We cover essential terms from epistemology, ethics, philosophy of religion, and philosophy of mind. Each term is explained in plain English, followed by a Chinese translation and memory tip to reinforce learning. Use this as your rapid revision companion.
这本全面的指南旨在帮助 Year 11 学生记忆并理解 AQA GCSE 哲学考试所需的关键哲学术语。我们涵盖了认识论、伦理学、宗教哲学和心灵哲学的基本术语。每个术语都用简明英语解释，随后提供中文翻译和记忆技巧以加强学习。请把它作为快速复习的伙伴。
1. What is Philosophy? | 什么是哲学？
Philosophy: The rational enquiry into fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, and values. The word comes from Greek 'philosophia', meaning love of wisdom.
哲学：对存在、知识和价值等根本问题的理性探究。该词源于希腊语“philosophia”，意为爱智慧。
A priori uths, such as 2 + 2 = 4, are a priori because we can know them without checking the world.
先验的：独立于经验的知识或确证。数学真理（如 2 + 2 = 4）是先验的，因为我们无需观察世界就能知其真假。
A posteriori: Knowledge that depends on experience or empirical evidence. For example, knowing that 'Paris is the capital of France' requires looking at the world.
后验的：依赖于经验或经验证据的知识。例如，要知道“巴黎是法国的首都”就必须去考察世界。
Argument: A set of statements where reasons (premises) are given to support a conclusion. A valid argument is one where the truth of the premises would guarantee the truth of the conclusion.
论证：一组由前提支持结论的陈述。有效的论证是指前提若为真，结论必定为真的论证。
2. Epistemology: Belief, Knowledge and Justification | 认识论：信念、知识与确证
Belief: A mental state of holding a proposition to be true. You can believe something without it actually being true; belief is a necessary condition for knowledge.
信念：认为某个命题为真的心理状态。你可能相信某件事，但它不一定为真；信念是知识的必要条件。
Knowledge: Traditionally defined as justified true belief (JTB). A person S knows that P if and only if P is true, S believes P, and S has justification for believing P.
知识：传统上被定义为被确证的真信念（JTB）。一个人 S 知道命题 P，当且仅当 P 为真，S 相信 P，并且 S 对相信 P 有确证。
Justification: The evidence or reasons that ground a belief and make it rational. Sources of justification include perception, memory, testimony, and reasoning.
确证：为信念提供基础并使之合理化的证据或理由。确证的来源包括感知、记忆、证词和推理。
Gettier Problem: Scenarios where someone has a justified true belief but still fails to have knowledge because the belief is true merely by luck. It challenges the JTB definition.
盖梯尔问题：指一个人虽然有被确证的真信念，但因信念为真仅仅是出于运气而不具备知识的情形。它动摇了传统的 JTB 定义。
3. Perception and Reality | 感知与实在
Direct Realism: The view that we perceive physical objects directly and immediately, without any mental intermediary. The world is exactly as we perceive it.
直接实在论：认为我们无需心理中介就能直接、即时地感知物理对象。世界就是我们感知到的样子。
Indirect Realism: The view that we perceive objects indirectly via sense-data, which are mental representations. We are directly aware only of sense-data, not the external objects themselves.
间接实在论：认为我们通过感觉材料（心理表征）来间接感知对象。我们直接意识到的只是感觉材料，而非外部对象本身。
Idealism: The metaphysical claim that reality is fundamentally mental. Physical objects do not exist independently of any perceiving mind.
观念论：主张实在从根本上说是心灵的。物理对象并不独立于任何感知心灵而存在。
Scepticism: The attitude of doubting knowledge claims. Global scepticism questions whether we can know anything at all; local scepticism targets specific domains like the external world.
怀疑论：一种质疑知识主张的态度。全局怀疑论怀疑我们能否知道任何事情；局部怀疑论则只针对外部世界等特定领域。
4. The Existence of God: Key Arguments | 上帝存在：关键论证
Cosmological Argument: An argument from the existence of the universe to a first cause or necessary being (God). The Kalam version states: whatever begins to exist has a cause; the universe began to exist; therefore, the universe has a cause.
宇宙论论证：从宇宙的存在推出第一因或必然存在（上帝）的论证。卡拉姆版本指出：凡开始存在者必有原因；宇宙开始存在；因此宇宙有原因。
Teleological Argument: Also called the design argument, it infers a designer from the apparent purpose, order, and complexity in nature. Paley's watchmaker analogy
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