📚 Year 11 AQA Law: Quick Guide to Legal Terminology | 词汇术语速记指南
Mastering legal terminology is essential for success in Year 11 AQA Law. This guide breaks down key terms across criminal law, civil law, the court system, and law-making, with clear English and Chinese explanations to help you memorise them efficiently.
掌握法律术语对于Year 11 AQA Law的成功至关重要。本指南将刑法、民法、法院体系及立法中的关键术语逐一拆解，配以清晰的中英文解释，助你高效记忆。
1. Criminal Law Essentials | 刑法要点
Actus reus is the Latin term for the guilty act – the physical element of a crime. It can be a voluntary action or an omission (failure to act) when the law imposes a duty to act.
犯罪行为 (actus reus) 是拉丁语，指犯罪的物理要素。可以是一个自愿的作为，或在法律规定了作为义务时的不作为。
Mens rea refers to the guilty mind – the mental element required for most crimes. It includes states such as intention, recklessness, and sometimes negligence, depending on the offence.
犯罪意图 (mens rea) 指犯罪心理，即大多数犯罪所需的心理要素。根据罪行不同，包括故意、轻率，有时也包括过失。
Strict liability offences do not require proof of mens rea for at least one part of the actus reus. The defendant can be convicted simply by doing the prohibited act, regardless of their state of mind. Common examples include selling alcohol to under-18s.
严格责任 犯罪不要求对犯罪行为的至少一个部分证明犯罪意图。只要实施了禁止的行为，无论被告当时的心理状态如何，都可能被定罪。常见例子包括向未满18岁者售酒。
Offences are classified as summary (minor crimes tried in the Magistrates' Court, e.g. common assault), indictable (serious crimes tried in the Crown Court, e.g. murder), or triable either way (middle-range crimes that can be tried in either court, e.g. theft).
犯罪分为简易程序罪（轻罪，由治安法院审理，如普通袭击）、可公诉罪（严重犯罪，由刑事法院审理，如谋杀），或可选择审判方式的罪行（中等严重程度，可在任一法院审理，如盗窃）。
2. Civil Law Fundamentals | 民法基础
Tort law deals with civil wrongs other than breach of contract. The most common tort is negligence, where a person breaches a duty of care and causes damage. Other torts include trespass and nuisance.
侵权法 处理除违约以外的民事侵害行为。最常见的侵权行为是过失侵权，即一个人违反注意义务并造成损害。其他侵权行为还包括侵入和妨害。
In contract law, a binding agreement requires offer, acceptance, and consideration (something of value exchanged). Breach of contract occurs when a party fails to fulfil their obligations.
在合同法中，一个有约束力的协议需要要约、承诺和对价（交换有价值之物）。违约 发生在一方未能履行其义务时。
The person bringing a civil case is the claimant, and the person being sued is the defendant. The standard of proof is on the balance of probabilities – more likely than not.
提起民事诉讼的一方是原告，被起诉的一方是被告。证明标准是相对可能性 – 即更有可能如此。
3. Sources of Law | 法律渊源
Statute law (legislation) is made by Parliament. Acts of Parliament are the highest form of domestic law and can override any other source.
成文法（制定法） 由议会制定。国会法案是国内最高形式的法律，可以推翻其他任何法律渊源。
Common law (case law) is law developed by judges through the decisions of courts. It is based on the doctrine of precedent and fills gaps where statute law is silent.
普通法（判例法） 是法官通过法院判决发展的法律。它以先例原则为基础，在成文法空白处填补规则。
Delegated legislation is law made by bodies other than Parliament, to whom Parliament has given authority. Examples include statutory instruments and bylaws made by local councils.
委任立法 是由议会授予权力的非议会机构制定的法律。例如法定文件和地方议会制定的地方法规。
4. The Doctrine of Precedent | 先例原则
Ratio decidendi (Latin for 'the reason for the decision') is the legal principle that forms the binding part of a judgment. Lower courts must follow the ratio of a higher court in similar cases.
判决理由 (ratio decidendi) 是拉丁语，意为“判决的理由”，即构成判决拘束力部分的法律原则。下级法院必须在类似案件中遵循上级法院的判决理由。
Obiter dicta ( 'things said by the way') are remarks made by a judge that are not essential to the decision. They are not binding but can be persuasive precedent for later courts.
附带意见 (obiter dicta) 是法官在判决中非必要部分的论述。虽然不具有拘束力，但可以作为后续法院的有说服力的先例。
The principle of stare decisis means 'to stand by things decided'. It underpins the English legal system, ensuring consistency and predictability.
遵循先例 原则意为“遵从已决之事”。它是英国法律体系的基石，确保了一致性和可预测性。
A binding precedent must be followed by a court if it comes from a higher court within the same hierarchy. A persuasive precedent may come from a lower court, a different hierarchy, or obiter dicta, and the court can choose whether to adopt it.
有拘束力的先例 必须被同一体系内更高一级法院的判决所遵循。有说服力的先例 可能来自下级法院、其他法域或附带意见，法院可以选择是否采纳。
5. Court Hierarchy | 法院等级
The Magistrates' Court is the lowest criminal court, dealing with summary offences, triable either way cases (initial hearings), and some civil family matters. Cases are heard by magistrates (lay justices) or a District Judge.
治安法院 是最低级别的刑事法院，处理简易程序罪、可选择方式罪行的初步聆讯以及一些民事家事案件。案件由治安法官（非专业法官）或地区法官审理。
The Crown Court hears serious indictable offences and appeals from the Magistrates' Court. A judge and jury are used when the defendant pleads not guilty.
刑事法院 审理严重的可公诉罪行以及来自治安法院的上诉。被告不认罪时，由法官和陪审团组成。
The High Court has three divisions: Queen's Bench (contract, tort, judicial review), Chancery (business, property, probate), and Family. It hears more complex civil cases and appeals.
高等法院 有三个分庭：王座庭（合同、侵权、司法审查）、大法官庭（商业、财产、遗嘱认证）和家事庭。它审理更复杂的民事案件和上诉。
The Court of Appeal has a Criminal Division (hears appeals from the Crown Court) and a Civil Division (hears appeals from the High Court and county courts). It only considers points of law, not retrials.
上诉法院 设有刑事庭（审理来自刑事法院的上诉）和民事庭（审理来自高等法院和郡法院的上诉）。它只审查法律问题，不进行重审。
The Supreme Court is the final court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases in England and Wales. Its decisions bind all lower courts.
最高法院 是英格兰和威尔士所有民事和刑事案件的终审上诉法院。其判决对所有下级法院具有拘束力。
6. Key Legal Personnel | 关键法律人员
Solicitors provide legal advice, prepare documents, and may represent clients in lower courts. They usually first contact the client and instruct barristers for higher court advocacy.
事务律师 提供法律建议、准备文件，并可在下级法院代表客户。他们通常是客户的初始联络人，并委托出庭律师在更高级法院出庭辩护。
Barristers specialise in court advocacy and giving expert legal opinions. They have rights of audience in all courts and often wear wigs and gowns in higher courts.
出庭律师 专长于法庭辩护和提供专业法律意见。他们拥有在所有法院的出庭发言权，在高级法院通常身着假发和法袍。
Judges preside over court proceedings, ensure fair trial, determine the law, and pass sentence in criminal cases or decide the outcome in civil cases. In the Crown Court, the judge directs the jury on legal points.
法官 主持庭审、确保公正审判、决定法律问题，并在刑事案件中量刑或在民事案件中裁定结果。在刑事法院，法官就法律问题向陪审团作出指示。
A jury consists of 12 members of the public in the Crown Court. Their role is to decide questions of fact and return a verdict of guilty or not guilty based on the evidence, applying the law as directed by the judge.
陪审团 在刑事法院由12名社会公众组成。其职责是决定事实问题，并根据证据，按照法官的法律指示，作出有罪或无罪的裁决。
Magistrates (Justices of the Peace) are unpaid volunteers who hear summary cases in the Magistrates' Court. They are advised on law by a legally qualified clerk.
治安法官 是无薪志愿者，在治安法院审理简易案件。他们在法律问题上由具备法律资格的书记官提供建议。
7. Law-Making Process | 立法程序
A Green Paper is a consultation document issued by the government to seek public views on a proposed area of law reform. A White Paper follows, setting out firm proposals for legislation.
绿皮书 是政府发布的咨询文件，就拟议的法律改革领域征求公众意见。随后发布的白皮书 则列出明确的立法提案。
A Bill is a draft law presented to Parliament. It must pass through several stages in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords: First Reading, Second Reading, Committee Stage, Report Stage, and Third Reading.
法案 是提交议会的法律草案。它必须在下议院和上议院经过多个阶段：一读、二读、委员会阶段、报告阶段和三读。
After both Houses agree on the final text, the Bill goes for Royal Assent. Once granted, it becomes an Act of Parliament and is enforceable law.
两院就最终文本达成一致后，法案送交御准。一经御准，即成为国会法令，成为可强制执行的法律。
Some statutes allow for delegated legislation to fill in the detailed rules later, often via statutory instruments made by government ministers.
一些法令允许通过委任立法 的方式充实后续细则，通常由政府大臣制定的法定文件 实现。
8. Liability, Defences, and Burdens | 责任、抗辩与举证责任
In criminal law, the prosecution bears the burden of proof to establish the defendant's guilt. The standard is beyond reasonable doubt – the jury must be sure of guilt.
在刑法中，控方承担举证责任 以证明被告有罪。证明标准是排除合理怀疑 – 陪审团必须确信其有罪。
In civil law, the claimant must prove their case on the balance of probabilities, meaning it is more than 50% likely that their version of events is true.
在民法中，原告必须以相对可能性 证明其主张，即其说法的可能性超过50%。
Common criminal defences include self-defence (reasonable force to protect oneself or another), duress (being forced to commit a crime by threats of death or serious injury), and insanity (defect of reason caused by disease of the mind leading to not knowing the nature or wrongfulness of the act).
常见的刑事抗辩包括自我防卫（使用合理武力保护自己或他人）、胁迫（因死亡或严重伤害威胁而被迫犯罪）以及精神病（因精神疾病导致理性缺陷，不知行为性质或错误性）。
9. Sentencing and Civil Remedies | 量刑与民事救济
In criminal cases, a custodial sentence means imprisonment. A community order requires the offender to perform unpaid work or attend programmes. A fine is a financial penalty paid to the state. An absolute discharge means no penalty is given despite a finding of guilt.
在刑事案件中，监禁刑 指入狱服刑。社区令 要求罪犯从事无偿劳动或参加项目。罚金 是向国家支付的金钱处罚。无条件释放 意味着尽管认定有罪，但不施加处罚。
In civil law, the main remedy is damages – monetary compensation to put the claimant in the position they would have been in without the wrong. Injunction is a court order to stop someone from doing something (prohibitory) or to compel them to do something (mandatory). Specific performance is a remedy in contract law compelling a party to fulfil their contractual promises.
在民法中，主要救济是损害赔偿金 – 使原告回复到未受侵害前状态的金钱补偿。禁制令 是法院命令，阻止某人做某事（禁止性禁制令）或强迫其为某事（强制性禁制令）。强制履行 是合同法中的救济，强制一方履行其合同承诺。
10. Latin Terms and Maxims | 拉丁术语与格言
Actus reus and mens rea form the foundation of criminal liability – the guilty act and the guilty mind. Both must usually be present at the same time for a conviction.
犯罪行为 与 犯罪意图 构成刑事责任的基础 – 即犯罪行为和犯罪心理。定罪通常要求二者同时存在。
Stare decisis (‘stand by things decided’) is the doctrine that courts must follow precedents set by higher courts. It ensures stability and fairness in law.
遵循先例 是法院必须遵循上级法院先例的原则。它确保法律的稳定与公平。
Res ipsa loquitur (‘the thing speaks for itself’) is a doctrine in tort law used in negligence cases where the mere fact of an accident implies a breach of duty, shifting the burden of proof to the defendant.
事实自证 是侵权法中的一项原则，用于过失案件，当事故本身暗示存在违反义务的行为时，将举证责任转移给被告。
Caveat emptor (‘let the buyer beware’) is the principle that the buyer alone is responsible for checking the quality and suitability of goods before purchase, though this has been heavily modified by consumer protection statutes.
买者自负 原则指买方在购买前应独自检查商品的质量和适用性，不过消费者保护法已大幅修改了这一原则。
Ultra vires (‘beyond the powers’) describes an act that goes beyond the legal authority of the person or body performing it. A decision made ultra vires can be declared void.
越权 指行为超出行为人法定权限。越权作出的决定可被宣告无效。
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