📚 Year 10 CCEA Chemistry: Formula & Theorems Quick Reference Handbook | Year 10 CCEA 化学：公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook gathers all essential formulas, definitions and key principles you need for Year 10 CCEA Chemistry. Keep it close when practicing calculations, balancing equations or revising core concepts. The content is aligned with the CCEA specification and focuses on building confident problem-solving skills.
本速查手册汇集了 Year 10 CCEA 化学课程中所有必备的公式、定义和核心原理。在做计算练习、配平方程式或复习基础概念时，你可以随时查阅。内容紧扣 CCEA 考试大纲，旨在帮助你建立自信的解题能力。
1. Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopes | 相对原子质量与同位素
The relative atomic mass (Aᵣ) of an element is the weighted average mass of all its naturally occurring isotopes compared to 1/12th of the mass of a carbon‑12 atom. It has no units.
元素的相对原子质量 (Aᵣ) 是指其所有天然同位素相对于碳‑12 原子质量的 1/12 的加权平均质量，没有单位。
Aᵣ = Σ (isotopic mass × % abundance) / 100
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, so they have different mass numbers.
同位素是指质子数相同而中子数不同的同种元素的原子，因此它们的质量数不同。
2. The Mole Concept | 摩尔概念
³ particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons). This number is the Avogadro constant (Nₐ).
一摩尔 (mol) 是包含恰好 6.022 × 10²³ 个微粒（原子、分子、离子或电子）的物质的量。这个数字就是阿伏伽德罗常数 (Nₐ)。
Number of particles = number of moles × 6.022 × 10²³
The mole links the microscopic world of atoms to measurable masses in the laboratory. Almost all chemical calculations begin with moles.
摩尔将微观的原子世界与实验室中可测量的质量联系了起来。几乎所有的化学计算都从摩尔开始。
3. Molar Mass and Calculations | 摩尔质量与计算
Molar mass (M) is the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole (g mol⁻¹). For an element, the molar mass in g mol⁻¹ is numerically equal to its relative atomic mass (Aᵣ).
摩尔质量 (M) 是一摩尔物质的质量，单位为克每摩尔 (g mol⁻¹)。对于元素而言，其摩尔质量的数值（以 g mol⁻¹ 表示）等于其相对原子质量 (Aᵣ)。
moles = mass (g) / molar mass (g mol⁻¹) or n = m / M
ive atomic masses of all the atoms in its formula. E.g., M(H₂O) = (2×1) + 16 = 18 g mol⁻¹.
对于化合物，计算摩尔质量时需要将化学式中所有原子的相对原子质量相加。例如 M(H₂O) = (2×1) + 16 = 18 g mol⁻¹。
4. Reacting Masses | 反应质量
atio from a balanced equation to convert between masses of different substances. The three‑step path is: mass → moles → mole ratio → mass.
反应质量计算利用配平方程式中的摩尔比，在不同物质的质量之间进行换算。三步路径为：质量 → 摩尔 → 摩尔比 → 质量。
| Step | Action | 公式 / 操作 |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Convert known mass to moles | n = m / M |
| 2 | Use mole ratio from balanced equation | Ratio n(known) : n(unknown) |
| 3 | Convert moles of unknown to mass | m = n × M |
Always work with a correctly balanced equation, and check that the masses are in the same units (grams).
一定要使用正确配平的方程式，并注意质量单位保持一致（克）。
5. Concentration of Solutions | 溶液浓度
Concentration tells you how much solute is dissolved in a given volume of solution. In CCEA Year 10, concentration is usually expressed in grams per cubic decimetre (g dm⁻³) or moles per cubic decimetre (mol dm⁻³).
浓度表示在一定体积的溶液中溶解了多少溶质。在 CCEA Year 10 阶段，浓度通常以克每立方分米 (g dm⁻³) 或摩尔每立方分米 (mol dm⁻³) 表示。
concentration (g dm⁻³) = mass of solute (g) / volume of solution (dm³)
concentration (mol dm⁻³) = moles of solute / volume (dm³)
Remember that 1 dm³ = 1000 cm³. To convert cm³ to dm³, divide by 1000. The term 'molarity' is also used for concentration in mol dm⁻³.
注意 1 dm³ = 1000 cm³。将 cm³ 转换为 dm³ 时，除以 1000。浓度以 mol dm⁻³ 表示时，也常称为“摩尔浓度”。
6. Molar Volume of a Gas | 气体摩尔体积
At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p., usually 20 °C and 1 atm), one mole of any gas occupies a volume of approximately 24 dm³ (or 24 000 cm³). This is the molar gas volume (Vₘ).
在常温常压下（r.t.p.，通常为 20 °C 和 1 atm），一摩尔任何气体的体积约为 24 dm³（或 24 000 cm³）。这就是气体摩尔体积 (Vₘ)。
volume of gas (dm³) = moles of gas × 24 dm³ mol⁻¹
This relationship only holds for gases and can be used to convert between gas volume and moles in reactions that produce or consume gases.
这个关系只适用于气体，可用于在产生或消耗气体的反应中，进行气体体积与摩尔数之间的转换。
7. Empirical and Molecular Formulae | 实验式与分子式
The empirical formula gives the simplest whole‑number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
实验式表示化合物中各元素原子最简整数比的式子。分子式则表示一个分子中各元素原子的实际数量。
To find an empirical formula from experimental data: convert masses (or percentages) to moles, then divide by the smallest number of moles to get the simplest ratio.
从实验数据求实验式的方法：将质量（或百分数）换算成摩尔数，再除以最小的摩尔数，得到最简整数比。
r formula = n × (empirical formula), where n = Mᵣ(compound) / Mᵣ(empirical formula)
You need the relative molecular mass (Mᵣ) to deduce the molecular formula from the empirical formula.
要从实验式推出分子式，需要知道该化合物的相对分子质量 (Mᵣ)。
8. Percentage Yield and Atom Economy | 产率与原子经济性
Percentage yield compares the actual mass of product obtained to the theoretical mass predicted by reacting‑mass calculations. It measures the efficiency of a reaction.
产率是指实际得到的产品质量与根据反应质量计算预测的理论质量之比，用于衡量反应的效率。
% yield = (actual mass / theoretical mass) × 100
Atom economy measures how much of the reactants end up in the desired product. High atom economy means less waste.
原子经济性衡量反应物中有多少原子最终进入了目标产物。原子经济性越高，废物越少。
% atom economy = (Mᵣ of desired product / sum of Mᵣ of all reactants) × 100
These concepts are important in industrial chemistry, where both yield and waste minimisation matter.
这两个概念在工业化学中尤为重要，因为产率和废物最小化都很关键。
9. Balancing Chemical Equations | 化学方程式的配平
A balanced chemical equation obeys the law of conservation of mass: the number of atoms of each element must be the same on both sides of the arrow.
配平的化学方程式遵循质量守恒定律：箭头两边各元素的原子总数必须相等。
| State symbols | Meaning |
|---|---|
| (s) | Solid |
| (l) | Liquid |
| (g) | Gas |
| (aq) | Aqueous (dissolved in water) |
Always check your balancing by counting atoms before and after. Never change the subscripts in a chemical formula; only adjust the big coefficients in front.
配平之后，务必通过数原子来检查左右两边。绝对不要改变化学式的小下标，只能调整前面的系数。
10. pH and Acid‑Base Basics | pH 值与酸碱基础
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. Acids produce H⁺ ions in water; alkalis produce OH⁻ ions. The pH scale ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly alkaline), with 7 being neutral.
pH 值是溶液中氢离子浓度的量度。酸在水中产生 H⁺ 离子，碱在水中产生 OH⁻ 离子。pH 标度从 0（强酸性）到 14（强碱性），7 为中性。
pH = –log₁₀[H⁺]
ralisation, an acid and a base react to form a salt and water: acid + base → salt + water.
在中和反应中，酸与碱反应生成盐和水：酸 + 碱 → 盐 + 水。
Indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein and methyl orange show characteristic colour changes at certain pH ranges. Universal indicator gives a full spectrum of colours.
指示剂如石蕊、酚酞和甲基橙在特定 pH 范围内会发生特征颜色变化。通用指示剂则呈现全彩色谱。
11. Reactivity Series and Redox | 活动性顺序与氧化还原
The reactivity series lists metals in order of their tendency to form positive ions. A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compound.
金属活动性顺序按金属形成阳离子的趋势排列。较活泼的金属能把较不活泼的金属从其化合物中置换出来。
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au
Oxidation is the loss of electrons; reduction is the gain of electrons. A redox reaction always involves both processes happening simultaneously.
氧化是失去电子，还原是得到电子。氧化还原反应总是同时包含这两个过程。
OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)
In terms of oxygen, oxidation can also be defined as the gain of oxygen, and reduction as the loss of oxygen.
就氧而言，氧化也可以定义为得氧，还原定义为失氧。
12. Rate of Reaction | 反应速率
The rate of a chemical reaction measures how quickly reactants are used up or products are formed. It can be expressed as a change in mass, volume or concentration per unit time.
化学反应速率衡量反应物消耗或产物生成的快慢。它可以表示为质量、体积或浓度在单位时间内的变化。
mean rate of reaction = quantity of reactant used or product formed / time taken
Factors that increase the rate of reaction include: increasing concentration of a solution, increasing pressure of a gas (same effect as concentration), increasing surface area of a solid, increasing temperature, and using a catalyst.
能加快反应速率的因素包括：增大溶液浓度、增大气体压强（与浓度作用相同）、增大固体表面积、升高温度以及使用催化剂。
For the CCEA course, you need to be able to interpret graphs of mass, volume or concentration against time, and explain changes in rate using the collision theory.
在 CCEA 课程中，你需要能够解读质量、体积或浓度随时间变化的曲线图，并运用碰撞理论解释反应速率的变化。
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