📚 Year 11 AQA Sociology: Key Term Memorisation Guide | AQA 社会学关键术语速记指南
Mastering sociology means speaking its language. This guide condenses the essential terms you must know for AQA GCSE Sociology into clear, paired definitions, helping you memorise and apply them with confidence in your exams.
掌握社会学意味着掌握它的语言。本指南将 AQA GCSE 社会学必考的核心术语浓缩为清晰的对译定义，帮助你高效记忆并在考试中自信运用。
1. Core Concepts of Sociology | 社会学核心概念
Sociology is the systematic study of human society, social groups, and social interactions, aiming to understand how social structures shape human behaviour.
社会学是对人类社会、社会群体和社会互动的系统研究，旨在理解社会结构如何塑造人类行为。
Social structures are the organised patterns of relationships and institutions that together form the framework of society, such as the family, education system, and class system.
社会结构是构成社会框架的有组织的关系和制度模式，例如家庭、教育体系和阶级体系。
Social processes refer to the dynamic interactions through which individuals and groups influence each other, including socialisation, cooperation, and conflict.
社会过程指个人与群体之间相互影响的动态互动，包括社会化、合作与冲突。
Social issues are problems that affect many people within a society and are often rooted in the way society is organised, such as poverty, racism, and educational inequality.
社会问题是影响社会中许多人的问题，通常源于社会本身的组织方式，如贫困、种族歧视和教育不平等。
2. Culture, Norms and Values | 文化、规范与价值观
Culture refers to the whole way of life of a particular group of people, encompassing language, beliefs, customs, norms, values, and material objects.
文化指某一特定群体的整个生活方式，包括语言、信仰、习俗、规范、价值观和物质产品。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society; they guide everyday actions and vary across cultures.
规范是在一个群体或社会中被认为是可接受的不成文行为规则；它们指导日常行为，并因文化而异。
Values are the deeply held beliefs and principles that a society considers important and desirable, such as honesty, equality, or respect for authority.
价值观是一个社会认为重要和可取的基本信念和原则，例如诚实、平等或尊重权威。
Subculture is a group within a larger culture that shares distinctive norms, values, and lifestyles that differ from the mainstream, while still remaining part of it.
亚文化是较大文化中的一个群体，共享与主流不同的独特规范、价值观和生活方式，同时仍属于整体文化的一部分。
3. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份认同
Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and culture of their society and develop a sense of self.
社会化是个人终身学习社会规范、价值观和文化并形成自我意识的过程。
Primary socialisation occurs in early childhood, mainly within the family, where children learn basic language, norms, and values through intimate interactions.
初级社会化发生在儿童早期，主要在家庭中进行，儿童通过亲密互动学习基本的语言、规范和价值观。
Secondary socialisation takes place later in life through agencies such as schools, peer groups, the mass media, and workplaces, reinforcing and extending social learning.
次级社会化在生命后期通过学校、同伴群体、大众传媒和工作场所等机构发生，强化并扩展社会学习。
Agencies of socialisation are the institutions and groups that transmit norms and values, including the family, education system, media, religion, and peer groups.
社会化机构是传递规范和价值观的机构和群体，包括家庭、教育系统、媒体、宗教和同伴群体。
4. Status and Role | 地位与角色
Status is a socially defined position in a group or society that comes with certain expectations, rights, and duties. It can be ascribed or achieved.
地位是在一个群体或社会中社会定义的位置，伴随特定的期望、权利和义务。地位可以是先赋的或自致的。
Ascribed status is a social position assigned to a person at birth or involuntarily later in life, based on characteristics such as age, sex, ethnicity, or family background.
先赋地位是个人出生时被赋予或之后非自愿获得的地位，基于年龄、性别、种族或家庭背景等特征。
Achieved status is a social position that an individual earns or chooses through their own efforts, talents, or actions, such as becoming a doctor or a criminal.
自致地位是个人通过自身努力、才能或行动获得或选择的地位，例如成为医生或罪犯。
Role is the set of behavioural expectations attached to a particular status; a person performs many roles, which can sometimes lead to role conflict.
角色是附属于特定地位的一套行为期望；一个人扮演许多角色，有时会导致角色冲突。
5. Social Control and Deviance | 社会控制与越轨
Social control refers to the various mechanisms used by a society to ensure individuals conform to accepted norms and values, including formal and informal sanctions.
社会控制指社会用来确保个人遵守公认规范和价值观的各种机制，包括正式和非正式制裁。
Formal social control is exercised by official institutions with recognised authority, such as the police, courts, and schools, through written rules, laws, and punishments.
正式社会控制由警察、法庭和学校等具有公认权威的官方机构通过成文规则、法律和惩罚来实施。
Informal social control operates through everyday interactions with family, peers, and the community, using disapproval, ridicule, or praise to encourage conformity.
非正式社会控制通过与家人、同伴和社区的日常互动发挥作用，利用不满、嘲笑或赞扬来鼓励从众。
Deviance is any behaviour that violates the norms or expectations of a particular group or society; it is not necessarily criminal but is seen as different or unacceptable.
越轨是任何违反特定群体或社会规范或期望的行为；不一定是犯罪，但被视为异类或不可接受。
6. Social Stratification and Life Chances | 社会分层与生活机会
Social stratification is the system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy based on factors like class, wealth, status, and power, leading to structured inequality.
社会分层是社会根据阶级、财富、地位和权力等因素将人们分类并排成等级的系统，导致结构性的不平等。
Social class is a grouping of people sharing a similar economic position, often defined by occupation, income, wealth, and education; classes are a key feature of stratification.
社会阶级是具有相似经济地位的人群划分，通常由职业、收入、财富和教育界定；阶级是分层的关键特征。
Life chances refer to the opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life and achieve desirable goods, such as healthcare, education, and employment; they are strongly influenced by class, gender, and ethnicity.
生活机会指个人提高生活质量和获得理想资源（如医疗、教育和就业）的机会；这些机会深受阶级、性别和种族的影响。
Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups between different social positions within the stratification system; it can be upward, downward, or horizontal.
社会流动是个人或群体在分层体系内不同社会位置之间的移动；可以是向上、向下或水平的。
7. Families | 家庭
Nuclear family consists of two generations living together: parents and their dependent children. Functionalists see it as essential for primary socialisation and emotional support.
核心家庭由两代人共同生活组成：父母及其受抚养子女。功能主义者认为它对初级社会化和情感支持至关重要。
Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear core, such as grandparents, uncles, and aunts, often living nearby or together and sharing responsibilities.
扩展家庭包括核心家庭以外的亲属，如祖父母、叔叔阿姨，通常住在一起或附近并分担责任。
Reconstituted family is formed when one or both partners bring children from a previous relationship into a new household; it is sometimes called a stepfamily.
重组家庭是在一方或双方带着前段关系的孩子组成新家庭时形成的；有时被称为继亲家庭。
Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and dominate roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property; feminist sociologists use this concept to analyse family structures.
父权制是男性掌握主要权力并主导政治领导、道德权威和财产控制的社会体系；女性主义社会学家用这一概念分析家庭结构。
8. Education | 教育
Formal curriculum refers to the planned, structured subjects and content that schools are required to teach, such as mathematics, science, and English.
正式课程指学校按计划教授的结构化学科和内容，如数学、科学和英语。
Hidden curriculum is the unspoken, informal lessons in norms, values, and attitudes that students learn in school through routines, teacher expectations, and the school environment.
隐性课程是学生通过学校日常、教师期望和学校环境学到的关于规范、价值观和态度等不成文的非正式课程。
Meritocracy is the idea that social rewards and positions should be allocated based on individual ability and effort rather than inherited privilege; many sociologists argue that education systems claim to be meritocratic but reproduce inequality.
功绩主义主张社会回报和地位应根据个人能力和努力而非继承特权来分配；许多社会学家认为教育体系声称功绩主义，但实际上再生产不平等。
Labelling in education is the process by which teachers attach a definition or category to a student (e.g., 'bright' or 'disruptive'), which can influence the student's self-concept and achievement — a key idea in interactionist theory.
标签化在教育中是指教师给学生贴上某种定义或类别（如“聪明”或“捣乱”）的过程，这可能影响学生的自我概念和成绩——这是互动论的一个关键观点。
9. Crime and Deviance | 犯罪与越轨
Crime is an act that breaks the formal, written laws of a society and is punishable by the state. Not all deviant acts are criminal, but all crimes are deviant by legal definition.
犯罪是违反社会正式成文法律并会受到国家惩罚的行为。并非所有越轨行为都是犯罪，但所有犯罪在法律定义上都是越轨的。
Anomie is a state of normlessness where society fails to provide clear moral guidance; functionalist Durkheim used this concept to explain why rapid social change can lead to higher deviance rates.
失范指社会未能提供明确道德指引的一种规范缺失状态；功能主义者涂尔干用这一概念解释为何急剧的社会变革会导致更高的越轨率。
White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, non-violent crimes committed by individuals or corporations in professional or business contexts, such as fraud or embezzlement.
白领犯罪指个人或企业在职业或商业背景下出于经济动机实施的非暴力犯罪，如欺诈或贪污。
Moral panic is an exaggerated social reaction to a perceived group or behaviour that is seen as a threat to societal values; the media often amplify these fears, leading to demands for stricter control.
道德恐慌是对一个被视为威胁社会价值观的群体或行为的夸张社会反应；媒体常常放大这些恐惧，导致要求更严厉控制的呼声。
10. Sociological Theories | 社会学理论
Functionalism is a consensus theory that sees society as a system of interconnected parts (institutions) that work together to maintain stability and social order. Key thinkers include Durkheim and Parsons.
功能主义是一种共识理论，认为社会是一个由相互关联的部分（制度）组成的系统，各部分共同维持稳定和社会秩序。代表人物有涂尔干和帕森斯。
Marxism is a conflict theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx, focusing on class struggle between the bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the proletariat (working class) and arguing that the capitalist economic base shapes all other institutions.
马克思主义是基于卡尔·马克思思想的冲突理论，关注资产阶级（统治阶级）与无产阶级（工人阶级）之间的阶级斗争，并认为资本主义经济基础塑造所有其他制度。
Feminism is a conflict perspective that examines gender inequality and patriarchy, highlighting how social structures and norms disadvantage women. Variants include liberal, Marxist, and radical feminism.
女性主义是一种探讨性别不平等和父权制的冲突视角，强调社会结构和规范如何使女性处于不利地位。变体包括自由主义、马克思主义和激进女性主义。
Interactionism is a micro-level approach focusing on small-scale everyday interactions, symbols, and meanings; it studies how individuals actively construct their social world through labelling, roles, and interpretation.
互动论是一种微观方法，关注小规模的日常互动、符号和意义；它研究个人如何通过标签化、角色和解释积极建构自己的社会世界。
11. Research Methods | 研究方法
Primary data is information collected directly by the researcher for a specific purpose, using methods like questionnaires, interviews, or observations. It offers high relevance but can be time-consuming.
一手数据是研究者为特定目的直接收集的信息，采用问卷、访谈或观察等方法。相关性高但可能耗时。
Secondary data is information that already exists and was collected by someone else for another purpose, such as official statistics, diaries, or historical documents. It saves time but may lack precise fit.
二手数据是已经存在并由他人出于其他目的收集的信息，如官方统计数据、日记或历史文献。节省时间但可能不完全匹配。
Qualitative data is non-numerical, in-depth information that captures meanings, feelings, and experiences, typically collected through open interviews or participant observation.
定性数据是捕捉意义、感受和经历的非数字深度信息，通常通过开放式访谈或参与观察收集。
Quantitative data is numerical information that can be measured and analysed statistically, often gathered through structured questionnaires, surveys, or experiments. It seeks to identify patterns and correlations.
定量数据是可以测量和进行统计分析的数值信息，通常通过结构化问卷、调查或实验收集，旨在识别模式和相关性。
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