📚 AQA GCSE Psychology: Glossary & Terminology Quick-Memorisation Guide | AQA GCSE 心理学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the terminology in AQA GCSE Psychology is half the battle. This guide breaks down the most important terms you'll encounter across the specification, grouped by topic, with clear definitions and memorable mnemonics or explanations for each. Use this alongside your revision to ensure you can define, apply, and evaluate with confidence in your exam.
掌握 AQA GCSE 心理学中的术语是成功的一半。本指南按主题分组，为你梳理了教学大纲中最重要的词汇，每个术语都配有清晰的定义和易于记忆的助记符或解释。请将本指南与你的复习计划结合使用，确保你在考试中能够自信地进行定义、应用和评估。
1. Research Methods | 研究方法
An independent variable (IV) is the factor manipulated or changed by the researcher. Think 'I change the IV'. The dependent variable (DV) is the factor measured to see if it was affected by the IV. It 'Depends on the IV'.
自变量 (IV) 是研究者操纵或改变的变量。记住：“我改变 IV (自变量)”。因变量 (DV) 是被测量的变量，看它是否受到自变量的影响。它的结果“取决于 IV”。
A hypothesis must be operationalised, meaning variables are stated in a precise, measurable way. Instead of 'people will be happier', an operationalised hypothesis would be 'participants will score higher on a self-reported mood scale from 1-10 after listening to upbeat music compared to silence'.
假设 必须是可操作的，即变量必须以精确、可测量的方式陈述。与其说“人们会更快乐”，一个可操作的假设应为：“与听安静音乐相比，听完节奏欢快的音乐后，参与者在 1-10 分的自评情绪量表上得分会更高”。
An extraneous variable (EV) is any variable other than the IV that might affect the DV if not controlled. A confounding variable is an EV that has contaminated the results because it wasn't controlled, varying systematically with the IV. Remember: Confounding = Contaminated.
额外变量 (EV) 是除 IV 外，如果不加控制就可能影响 DV 的任何变量。混淆变量 是一种因为未被控制而与 IV 一起发生系统性变化，从而“污染”了实验结果的 EV。记住：混淆 = 污染。
- Independent group design: different participants in each condition.
- 独立组设计：每种实验条件下使用不同的参与者。
- Repeated measures design: the same participants in all conditions.
- 重复测量设计：所有实验条件下的参与者都是同一批人。
- Matched pairs design: different but similar participants in each condition, matched on key traits.
- 配对组设计：每种条件下使用不同但相似的参与者，他们在关键特质上进行了匹配。
Random allocation is used in independent groups designs to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being in any condition, controlling for participant variables. Counterbalancing (ABBA) is used in repeated measures to control for order effects like fatigue or practice.
随机分配 用于独立组设计，以确保每个参与者被分配到任一实验组的机会均等，从而控制参与者变量。平衡法 (ABBA) 用于重复测量设计，以控制疲劳或练习等顺序效应。
| Ethical Issue | How to Deal With It |
|---|---|
| Informed consent | Signed form; for under-16s, parental consent; retrospective consent if deception is used |
| Deception | Must be justified; debrief at the end explaining true aims and offering the right to withdraw data |
| Confidentiality | Use numbers/initials, not names; do not share data with others |
| 伦理问题 | 处理方法 |
|---|---|
| 知情同意 | 签署知情同意书；16 岁以下需监护人同意；若使用欺骗，则事后获取回顾性同意 |
| 欺骗 | 必须有充分理由；实验结束后须进行事后解释，说明真实目的并提供撤回数据的权利 |
| 保密性 | 使用编号或首字母代替姓名；不得与他人共享数据 |
2. Memory | 记忆
Encoding is changing sensory information into a form that can be stored. Storage is holding information in the memory system. Retrieval is recovering stored information. Think of a computer: typing (encode), saving (store), opening a file (retrieve).
编码 是将感觉信息转化为可存储的形式。存储 是在记忆系统中保存信息。提取 是恢复已存储的信息。想象一下电脑：打字（编码），保存（存储），打开文件（提取）。
The Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) under ½ second, and codes modality-specifically (echoic for sound, iconic for vision). STM capacity is 7±2 chunks (Miller), duration around 18-30 seconds without rehearsal, and codes acoustically. LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and duration, coding semantically.
多存储模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin) 描述了三个独立的存储库：感觉登记器 → 短时记忆（通过注意）→ 长时记忆（通过复述）。感觉登记器容量极大，持续时间不足半秒，并按特定模态编码（声像记忆对应听觉，图像记忆对应视觉）。短时记忆容量为 7±2 个组块 (Miller)，在无复述情况下持续时间约 18-30 秒，主要以听觉编码。长时记忆容量和持续时间理论上无限，主要以语义编码。
Proactive interference is when old learning disrupts new learning. Retroactive interference is when new learning disrupts old learning. Think 'Proactive → Past prevents; Retroactive → Recent wrecks'.
前摄干扰 指旧知识干扰了新知识的学习。倒摄干扰 指新知识干扰了对旧知识的回忆。记住：“前摄 → 旧的妨碍新；倒摄 → 新的破坏旧”。
In Bartlett's War of the Ghosts study, he used serial reproduction, where one person recalled a story and passed it on to the next. He found memories are reconstructive, shaped by schemas – packages of prior knowledge and expectations. Stories became shorter, more conventional, and westernised (omissions, transformations, rationalisations).
在 Bartlett 的“幽灵的战争” 研究中，他使用了系列再现法，即一个人回忆一个故事并传递给下一个人。他发现记忆是重构的，受图式——即已有的知识和期望包——的影响。故事变得更短、更常规且更西化（出现省略、变形和合理化）。
3. Perception | 感知
Sensation is the passive process of gathering data from sense organs. Perception is the active process of interpreting and organising sensory data. Sensation is mere detection; perception involves understanding.
感觉 是从感觉器官被动收集数据的过程。感知 是一个积极解释和组织感觉数据的过程。感觉仅仅是检测；感知涉及理解。
Gibson's direct theory argues sensation and perception are the same. Sufficient information is available in the optic array, meaning we do not need past experience. Key concepts include optic flow (the pattern of motion changing as we move), motion parallax (closer objects appear to move faster than distant ones), and affordances (what an object offers or can be used for). This theory suffers from the inability to explain visual illusions where perception disagrees with reality.
Gibson 的直接理论 认为感觉和感知是同一回事。光阵列中已包含足够的信息，我们不需要依赖过去的经验。核心概念包括光流（我们移动时，运动模式会发生变化）、运动视差（近处物体看起来比远处物体移动得更快）以及功能示能性（一个物体提供或可以用来做什么）。该理论的缺陷在于无法解释感知与现实不符的视错觉现象。
Gregory's constructivist theory claims perception is an active process making inferences based on past experience, tested through visual hypotheses. We construct perceptions from incomplete data, which is why we are susceptible to illusions. The Hollow Mask illusion supports this: we expect faces to be convex, so we see a concave mask as a normal outward face. Gregory's theory is less able to explain very accurate, newborn perception (e.g., Gibson's visual cliff).
Gregory 的建构主义理论 主张感知是一个基于过去经验进行推断的主动过程，并通过视觉假设进行检验。我们从不完整的数据构建感知，这就是我们容易产生错觉的原因。空心面具错觉 支持了这一点：我们预期人脸是凸起的，所以会将一个凹进去的面具看成正常的凸起面孔。Gregory 的理论较难解释婴儿（例如 Gibson 的视觉悬崖实验中）精准的感知能力。
Visual cues for depth perception include monocular cues: relative size (smaller = further away), linear perspective (parallel lines converge with distance), and height in plane (objects higher up a picture appear further away). Retinal disparity is a binocular cue where each eye gets a slightly different view; the greater the disparity, the closer the object.
深度感知的视觉线索 包括单眼线索：相对大小（越小越远）、线条透视（平行线在远处汇聚）以及平面高度（图像中越高的物体看起来越远）。视网膜像差 是一种双眼线索，每只眼睛接收到略有不同的图像；像差越大，物体越近。
4. Development | 发展
Egocentrism is a child's tendency, in Piaget's pre-operational stage (2-7 years), to see the world only from their own perspective. The Three Mountains task demonstrated this: children could not pick a picture showing the doll's view, choosing their own view instead. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects have feelings or intentions.
自我中心主义 是 Piaget 前运算阶段（2-7 岁）儿童的一种倾向，即只从自己的视角看世界。三山任务 证明了这一点：儿童无法选出显示玩偶视角的图片，而选了自己角度的图片。泛灵论 是指认为无生命物体也有感情或意图的信念。
In the concrete operational stage (7-11 years), children develop conservation: understanding that quantity remains invariant despite changes in shape or appearance (e.g., liquid poured into a different shaped glass). They also overcome egocentrism and can perform class inclusion tasks, understanding that categories can have subsets.
在具体运算阶段（7-11 岁），儿童发展出守恒能力：理解尽管物体形状或外观发生了变化，但其总量保持不变（例如，液体倒入不同形状的杯子）。他们也克服了自我中心主义，能够完成类包含任务，理解分类可以有子集。
Dweck's mindset theory proposes two types of mindset. A fixed mindset views ability as innate and unchangeable; this leads to giving up easily and avoiding challenges for fear of failure. A growth mindset sees ability as malleable and improvable through effort; this leads to persistence and seeking challenges. Praise should focus on effort ('I can see how hard you worked'), not ability ('You're so clever'), to foster a growth mindset.
Dweck 的思维模式理论 提出了两种思维类型。固定型思维 认为能力是天生的、不可改变的；这导致轻易放弃，因害怕失败而逃避挑战。成长型思维 认为能力是可塑的，通过努力可以提高；这带来了坚持不懈和寻求挑战的行为。赞扬应集中在努力上（“我看到你很努力了”），而不是能力（“你真聪明”），以此培养成长型思维。
In McGarrigle and Donaldson's 'naughty teddy' study, they showed that making the transformation accidental (teddy knocked counters) rather than deliberate led to more children (over 60%) showing conservation compared to Piaget's original task. This suggests Piaget underestimated children's cognitive abilities by making tasks too artificial and lacking in human sense.
在 McGarrigle 和 Donaldson 的“淘气小熊”研究 中，他们证明，让物体变化（小熊撞乱了筹码）是偶然而非实验者故意时，与 Piaget 的原始任务相比，表现出守恒能力的儿童更多（超过 60%）。这表明 Piaget 因任务过于人工化和缺乏人情味，而低估了儿童的认知能力。
5. Social Influence | 社会影响
Conformity is yielding to group pressure, changing one's behaviour or beliefs to fit in with a majority. Normative social influence is conforming to be liked and accepted, linked to compliance (public change, not private). Informational social influence is conforming because you believe the group is right, linked to internalisation (genuine private and public change).
从众 是指屈服于群体压力，改变自己的行为或信念以符合大多数人的标准。规范型社会影响 是为了被喜欢和接受而从众，与顺服有关（公开行为改变，私下未变）。信息型社会影响 是因为认为群体是正确的而从众，与内化有关（公开和私下都真正改变）。
Asch's line study (1951, 1955) showed 75% of participants conformed at least once, giving an obviously wrong answer when confederates unanimously gave a wrong answer first. Three key variables affecting conformity were: group size (conformity peaked with 3 confederates), unanimity (a dissenting ally broke conformity), and task difficulty (harder tasks increased conformity via informational influence).
Asch 的线段研究 (1951, 1955) 显示，75% 的参与者至少从众过一次，当同谋者一致地先给出明显错误的答案时，他们也跟着给出错误答案。影响从众的三个关键变量是：群体规模（3 名同谋者时从众率最高）、一致性（一个持异议的盟友就能瓦解从众）、以及任务难度（任务越难，通过信息型影响导致的从众越多）。
Obedience is following a direct order from an authority figure. In Milgram's baseline study, 65% of participants administered the maximum 450V shock, even when the learner fell silent. Proximity (closeness to victim or authority) affected obedience: touch proximity condition dropped to 30%, and experimenter absent (phone) dropped to 20.5%. Location (run-down office) reduced obedience to 47.5%. Uniform (experimenter replaced by ordinary member) dropped it to 20%.
服从 是遵循权威人物直接命令的行为。在 Milgram 的基线研究 中，65% 的参与者施加了最高 450 伏的电击，即使学习者已陷入沉默。接近性（与受害者或权威的距离）会影响服从：身体接触条件下降至 30%，实验者不在场（电话指示）下降至 20.5%。地点（破败的办公楼）使服从率降至 47.5%。制服（实验者由普通成员代替）使服从率降至 20%。
Agentic state is the theory from Milgram where a person sees themselves as an 'agent' carrying out another's wishes, therefore feeling no personal responsibility. The autonomous state is when we feel personally responsible. The agentic shift moves us from autonomous to agentic. This theory is limited because it does not explain why not all participants reached the maximum shock or the high anxiety shown.
代理状态 是 Milgram 提出的理论，指人们将自己视为执行他人意愿的“代理人”，因此感觉不到个人责任。自主状态 是指我们感到负有个人责任的状态。代理转换 让我们从自主状态变为代理状态。该理论有其局限性，因为它无法解释为何并非所有参与者都施加到最高电压，也无法解释参与者表现出的高度焦虑。
6. Language, Thought and Communication | 语言、思维与沟通
Piaget's theory of language and thought argues thought comes before language. Cognitive development determines linguistic development. Language depends on understanding; you can't use words meaningfully without grasping the underlying concepts. Egocentric speech (talking to oneself) peaks in the pre-operational stage and fades as children become more social and need to be understood.
Piaget 的语言与思维理论 认为思维先于语言。认知发展决定语言发展。语言依赖于理解；不理解底层概念就无法有意义地使用词汇。自我中心言语（自言自语）在前运算阶段达到顶峰，随着儿童的社会化以及需要被人理解而逐渐消失。
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis claims language determines thought (strong version, linguistic determinism) or influences thought (weak version, linguistic relativism). Differences in language lead to differences in ways of thinking. For example, the Inuit allegedly have many words for 'snow', suggesting finer perceptual discrimination. However, this 'Eskimo snow' claim is now largely considered a myth, and the strong version has been discredited.
Sapir-Whorf 假说 声称语言决定思维（强版本，语言决定论）或语言影响思维（弱版本，语言相对论）。语言的差异导致思维方式的差异。例如，据说因纽特人有许多描述“雪”的词汇，这暗示着更精细的感知区分。然而，这个“爱斯基摩雪”的说法现在很大程度上被认为是一个谣传，且该假说的强版本已被证伪。
Non-verbal communication includes eye contact (regulating flow of conversation, signalling attraction), body language (open/closed posture), and personal space (cultural and status differences, sex differences where men prefer more space and women sit closer). A pupillometry study by Hess found that pupils dilated when viewing pleasant images and constricted for unpleasant, showing pupils signal emotional responses.
非语言沟通 包括眼神接触（调节谈话节奏，传递吸引力信号）、身体语言（开放/封闭姿势）以及个人空间（存在文化和地位差异，性别差异中男性倾向保持更大距离而女性坐得更近）。Hess 的一项瞳孔测量研究 发现，看到令人愉悦的图像时瞳孔会放大，看到不悦图像时瞳孔会缩小，表明瞳孔能传递情绪反应信号。
In Darwin's evolutionary theory of non-verbal communication, emotions expressed through facial expressions are innate and universal. A smile signals friendliness and reduces aggression, enhancing survival. This is supported by cross-cultural research (e.g., Ekman found Fore tribe identified basic emotions from photos accurately) and observations of blind infants smiling despite never having seen a smile.
在 Darwin 的非语言沟通进化论 中，通过面部表情传达的情绪是天生的、普遍的。微笑传递友好并能减少攻击，从而提高生存几率。这得到了跨文化研究（例如 Ekman 发现 Fore 部落成员能准确从照片中识别基本情绪）以及盲婴虽从未见过微笑却会自然发笑的观察证据的支持。
7. Brain and Neuropsychology | 大脑与神经心理学
The nervous system's basic building block is the neuron (nerve cell). Key parts: dendrites receive signals, the cell body (soma) controls the cell, the axon carries the impulse away, the myelin sheath insulates for faster transmission, and axon terminals pass signals to the next neuron via a gap called the synapse.
神经系统的基本构建单元是神经元（神经细胞）。关键组成部分：树突 接收信号，细胞体（胞体）控制细胞，轴突 将神经冲动传出，髓鞘 起到绝缘作用以加速传递，轴突终末 通过一个叫做突触的间隙将信号传递到下一个神经元。
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers at the synapse. Serotonin regulates mood, appetite, and sleep; low levels are linked to depression. Dopamine is linked to pleasure, reward, and movement; excessive levels are associated with schizophrenia, while Parkinson's disease involves dopamine cell death. The process of synaptic transmission involves neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft, binding to receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron like a lock and key.
神经递质 是突触中的化学信使。血清素 调节情绪、食欲和睡眠；低水平与抑郁症相关。多巴胺 与愉悦、奖励和运动相关；水平过高与精神分裂症有关，而帕金森病则涉及多巴胺细胞死亡。突触传递过程 包含神经递质释放到突触间隙，并像锁和钥匙一样与突触后神经元上的受体位点结合。
The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes. The frontal lobe handles executive functions, personality, decision-making, and contains the motor cortex. The parietal lobe processes sensory information like touch, temperature, and pain (somatosensory cortex). The occipital lobe processes visual information. The temporal lobe processes auditory information and memory. Broca's area (left frontal) controls speech production; Wernicke's area (left temporal) controls language comprehension.
大脑皮层分为四个叶。额叶 负责执行功能、人格、决策，并包含运动皮层。顶叶 处理触觉、温度和痛觉等感觉信息（躯体感觉皮层）。枕叶 处理视觉信息。颞叶 处理听觉信息和记忆。布洛卡区（左额叶）控制言语表达；韦尼克区（左颞叶）控制语言理解。
Penfield's Montreal procedure electrically stimulated exposed brains of awake epileptic patients to map functions before surgery. Stimulating the motor cortex produced involuntary movement on the opposite body side; the somatosensory cortex produced tingling sensations. This provided strong evidence for localisation of function. The invasive nature and patient sample (all epileptic, brain potentially atypical) limits generalisability.
Penfield 的蒙特利尔术式 在手术前通过电刺激清醒癫痫患者裸露的大脑来绘制功能区图谱。刺激运动皮层会引起对侧身体的不自主运动；刺激躯体感觉皮层会产生针刺感。这为大脑功能定位提供了有力证据。但其侵入性及样本特殊性（全是癫痫患者，大脑可能非典型）限制了其普适性。
8. Psychological Problems | 心理问题
Mental health is a continuum from optimal functioning to severely debilitating. 'Good mental health' is not just absence of disorder but includes being able to cope with daily life, maintain relationships, work productively, and contribute to the community. The ICD-10 (World Health Organization) is the internationally used manual for classifying mental disorders.
心理健康 是一个从最佳功能状态到严重衰弱的连续体。“良好的心理健康”不仅仅是缺乏疾病，还包括能够应对日常生活、维持人际关系、有效工作以及为社区做出贡献。ICD-10（世界卫生组织）是国际上使用的精神障碍分类手册。
Depression is characterised by persistent low mood, loss of interest/pleasure (anhedonia), and low energy. The cognitive theory (Beck) proposes a negative triad: negative views of the self, the world, and the future. Schema theory explains how early negative experiences create self-blaming schemas activated by new events, leading to cognitive biases like overgeneralisation and catastrophising.
抑郁症 的特征是持续的情绪低落、兴趣或快感丧失（快感缺失）以及精力不足。认知理论 (Beck) 提出了认知三联征：对自我、世界和未来的消极看法。图式理论 解释了早期负面经历如何形成自我归咎的图式，并在新事件发生时被激活，导致认知偏差，如过度概括和灾难化思维。
Addiction involves a compulsive need for and use of a habit-forming substance, characterised by tolerance, withdrawal, and loss of control. Substance Use Disorder replaces older terms like addiction/dependence in diagnostic language. Withdrawal is the unpleasant physical and psychological symptoms when the substance is discontinued (opposite to the drug's effects). Tolerance means needing increasing doses to achieve the same effect.
成瘾 涉及对成瘾性物质的强迫性渴求和使用，其特征包括耐受性增加、戒断反应和行为失控。物质使用障碍 在诊断用语中取代了成瘾/依赖等旧称。戒断反应 是指停用物质后出现的不愉快的生理和心理症状（与药物作用相反）。耐受性 是指需要增加剂量才能达到相同效果。
Genetic explanation of addiction: dopamine receptor genes, especially the DRD2 A1 variant, may reduce dopamine receptor density, making individuals seek substance-induced dopamine surges. Kendler et al. (2012) using the Swedish national registry found heritability estimates for addiction ranging from 33% (hallucinogens) to 84% (cocaine). However, adoption studies show environment also plays a key role since not all twins with the variant become addicts.
成瘾的遗传学解释： 多巴胺受体基因，特别是 DRD2 A1 变异，可能会降低多巴胺受体密度，导致个体寻求物质诱导的多巴胺激增。Kendler 等人 (2012) 利用瑞典全国注册研究数据发现，成瘾的遗传率估算值从 33%（致幻剂）到 84%（可卡因）不等。然而，收养研究显示环境也起着关键作用，因为并非所有携带该变异的双胞胎都会成为成瘾者。
Learning theory of addiction uses classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning explains cues (paraphernalia, locations) becoming conditioned stimuli triggering cravings. Operant conditioning explains positive reinforcement (pleasure euphoria) and negative reinforcement (escape from withdrawal symptoms or stress) both strengthening the addictive behaviour. Relapse rates are high partly due to cues and failure to extinguish learned associations.
成瘾的学习理论 运用了经典条件反射和操作性条件反射。经典条件反射 解释了暗示物（吸毒用具、地点）如何变成引发渴求的制约刺激。操作性条件反射 解释了正强化（愉悦的快感）和负强化（逃避戒断症状或缓解压力）共同强化了成瘾行为。复吸率高部分是由于环境线索以及已习得的联结未能消退。
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