📚 Formula and Theorem Quick Reference Handbook for AQA GCSE Psychology | AQA GCSE心理学公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook has been compiled specifically for Year 11 students following the AQA GCSE Psychology specification. It brings together all the essential formulas, theorems, key terms, and theoretical models in one place. Whether you need to revise the multi-store model of memory, quickly check how to calculate mean, median, mode, and range, or review ethical guidelines, this guide is designed to help you learn efficiently and retain information effectively. Every topic is presented in clear English followed immediately by its Chinese equivalent, making the content accessible to bilingual learners.
本速查手册专为学习 AQA GCSE 心理学的 Year 11 学生编写，将重要的公式、定理、关键概念和理论模型汇集于一处。不论你需要复习记忆的多重储存模型、快速查阅如何计算平均数、中位数、众数和极差，还是重温伦理准则，这本指南都能帮助你高效学习并牢固记忆。每个主题均以清晰的英文陈述，紧接着对应的中文，方便双语学习者理解。
1. Research Methods & Experimental Designs | 研究方法和实验设计
An experiment tests a hypothesis by manipulating an independent variable (IV) and measuring the effect on a dependent variable (DV). The condition where the IV is manipulated is the experimental condition, while the condition without this manipulation is the control condition. Extraneous variables must be controlled to avoid confounding results.
实验通过操纵自变量 (IV) 并测量其对因变量 (DV) 的影响来检验假设。操纵 IV 的条件为实验条件，没有进行操纵的条件为控制条件。必须控制额外变量，以免混淆结果。
Three main experimental designs exist: independent groups design, where different participants are used in each condition; repeated measures design, where the same participants take part in all conditions; and matched pairs design, where participants are matched on key characteristics and then assigned to different conditions.
三种主要的实验设计：独立组设计——每个条件使用不同的被试；重复测量设计——同一批被试参与所有条件；配对组设计——被试先根据关键特征进行匹配，再分配到不同条件。
| Design | Strengths | Limitations |
| Independent groups | No order effects; demand characteristics reduced | Participant variables may differ between groups |
| Repeated measures | Participant variables held constant; fewer participants needed | Order effects can occur; demand characteristics more likely |
| Matched pairs | Controls for participant variables; no order effects | Time-consuming; matching may be imperfect |
Independent Variable (IV): manipulated by the researcher | 自变量(IV)：由研究者操纵
Dependent Variable (DV): measured outcome | 因变量(DV)：测量的结果
2. Descriptive Statistics: Mean, Median, Mode & Range | 描述统计：平均数、中位数、众数和极差
Descriptive statistics summarise data. The mean is the arithmetic average. The median is the middle value when data are ordered. The mode is the most frequently occurring value. The range measures spread by subtracting the smallest value from the largest.
描述统计用于概括数据。平均数即算术平均值。中位数是将数据排序后的中间值。众数是出现频率最高的值。极差通过最大值减最小值来衡量离散程度。
For a set of data, the formulas are given below. Always arrange numbers in numerical order before finding the median.
对于一组数据，公式如下所示。求中位数前务必先将数字按数值大小排列。
Mean = Σx ÷ n (Σx = sum of all values, n = number of values | Σx = 所有数值之和, n = 数值个数)
Range = Maximum value − Minimum value | 极差 = 最大值 − 最小值
ercentage = (Part ÷ Whole) × 100. Ratios and fractions also appear in data interpretation.
百分比的公式：百分比 = (部分 ÷ 整体) × 100。比率和分数也常在数据解读中用到。
3. Ethical Guidelines for Psychological Research | 心理学研究的伦理准则
All psychological research must follow ethical principles to protect participants. The British Psychological Society (BPS) sets these guidelines. Key principles include obtaining informed consent, avoiding deception unless justified, giving participants the right to withdraw at any time, protecting them from physical and psychological harm, ensuring confidentiality of data, and debriefing after the study.
所有心理学研究必须遵守伦理原则以保护被试。英国心理学会 (BPS) 制定了这些准则。核心原则包括：获得知情同意、除非合理否则避免欺骗、给予被试随时退出的权利、保护其免受身心伤害、确保数据保密、以及在研究后进行解释性简报。
If deception is necessary, researchers must fully debrief participants afterwards and offer the chance to withhold their data. Privacy must be respected, meaning personal details should not be identifiable in published work.
若欺骗是必要的，研究者在事后必须全面进行简报，并提供扣留数据的机会。隐私必须受到尊重，即发表作品中不应出现可识别身份的个人信息。
4. Multi-Store Model of Memory | 记忆的多重储存模型
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed that memory consists of three stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information flows linearly through these stores if attention and rehearsal are applied.
Atkinson 和 Shiffrin (1968) 提出记忆由三个储存库组成：感觉登记器、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。如果给予注意和复述，信息会线性地流经这些储存库。
has a limited capacity of 7±2 items and a duration of about 18-30 seconds without rehearsal. Rehearsal moves information from STM to LTM, which has potentially unlimited capacity and duration. Encoding in STM is primarily acoustic, while LTM tends to be semantic.
感觉登记器容量很大，但保持时间极短（视觉不足0.5秒，听觉2-3秒）。STM 的容量有限，为 7±2 个项目，若不进行复述，保持时间约为 18-30 秒。复述将信息从 STM 转入 LTM，后者的容量和持续时间几乎无限。STM 的编码主要是听觉性，而 LTM 偏向语义性。
STM capacity: 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956) | STM 容量：7 ± 2 个项目
5. Theories of Perception: Gibson vs. Gregory | 感知理论：吉布森与格雷戈里
Gibson’s direct theory argues that perception is bottom-up and does not require prior knowledge. The environment provides enough information – such as texture gradient, optic flow, and horizon ratio – for accurate perception. Affordances are what the environment offers the perceiver.
Gibson 的直接理论认为感知是自下而上的，不需要先验知识。环境提供了足够的信息——如纹理梯度、光流和地平线比例——以实现准确感知。环境提供的可能性称为“可供性”。
Gregory’s constructivist theory claims perception is top-down and involves inference. The brain uses past experience and expectations to construct a hypothesis about what is being perceived. Visual illusions occur when the hypothesis is wrong. Both theories are supported by research, though neither fully accounts for all perceptual phenomena.
Gregory 的建构主义理论主张感知是自上而下的，涉及推理过程。大脑利用过往经验和预期来建构关于所见事物的假设。当假设出错时，就会产生视错觉。两种理论均得到了研究支持，但都无法完全解释所有感知现象。
6. Social Influence: Conformity, Obedience & Bystander Effect | 社会影响：从众、服从与旁观者效应
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief to fit in with a group. Asch (1951) demonstrated that participants gave obviously incorrect answers to match the group’s judgement on a line- matching task. Normative social influence (to be liked) and informational social influence (to be right) explain why people conform.
从众是指改变行为或信念以适应群体。Asch (1951) 发现，在线段匹配任务中，被试会给出明显错误的答案以符合群体判断。规范性社会影响（为了被喜欢）和信息性社会影响（为了正确）可以解释从众的原因。
Obedience involves following a direct order from an authority figure. Milgram (1963) found that 65% of participants administered what they believed were potentially lethal electric shocks to a learner when instructed by an experimenter. Factors affecting obedience include proximity of the authority figure, prestige, and personal responsibility.
服从是指遵从权威人物的直接命令。Milgram (1963) 发现，65% 的被试在实验者指示下，对学习者施加了他们以为可能致命的电击。影响服从的因素包括权威人物的近距离、威信和个人责任感。
The bystander effect refers to the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present. Darley and Latané (1968) explained this through diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.
旁观者效应指当他人在场时，个体在紧急情况下提供帮助的可能性反而降低。Darley 和 Latané (1968) 通过责任分散和多数无知解释了这一现象。
7. Brain Structure & Function | 脑结构与功能
The brain is divided into four lobes: frontal lobe (thinking, planning, personality), parietal lobe (sensory processing, spatial awareness), temporal lobe (hearing, memory), and occipital lobe (vision). The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum.
大脑分为四个叶：额叶（思维、计划、个性）、顶叶（感觉处理、空间意识）、颞叶（听觉、记忆）和枕叶（视觉）。两个半球通过胼胝体相连。
Broca’s area, located in the left frontal lobe, is responsible for speech production. Damage results in Broca’s aphasia – difficulty producing fluent speech, though comprehension remains relatively intact. Wernicke’s area, in the left temporal lobe, is critical for language comprehension. Damage leads to Wernicke’s aphasia, where speech may be fluent but nonsensical.
布罗卡区位于左额叶，负责言语产出。损伤会导致布罗卡失语症——言语不流畅，但理解能力相对完整。韦尼克区位于左颞叶，对语言理解至关重要。损伤会导致韦尼克失语症，患者言语可能流利但毫无意义。
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions. The sympathetic branch activates ‘fight or flight’ responses (increased heart rate, dilated pupils), while the parasympathetic branch restores ‘rest and digest’ once the threat passes.
自主神经系统控制非随意功能。交感神经分支激活“战斗或逃跑”反应（心率加快、瞳孔放大），而副交感神经分支在威胁过去后恢复“休息与消化”。
8. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through four universal stages of cognitive development. Each stage is characterised by distinct ways of thinking.
让·皮亚杰提出儿童经历四个普遍的认知发展阶段。每个阶段都有独特的思维方式。
- Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): infants learn through senses and actions; develop object permanence – understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight. | 感觉运动阶段（0-2岁）：婴儿通过感官和动作学习；发展出客体永久性——理解物体即使看不见依然存在。
- Pre-operational stage (2-7 years): symbolic thinking develops but logic is limited; children show egocentrism (difficulty seeing others’ viewpoints) and cannot yet conserve. | 前运算阶段（2-7岁）：符号思维发展但逻辑有限；儿童表现出自我中心（难以理解他人的观点）且尚未掌握守恒。
- Concrete operational stage (7-11 years): logical thinking about concrete events emerges; children master conservation and classification but struggle with abstract ideas. | 具体运算阶段（7-11岁）：对具体事件的逻辑思维出现；儿童掌握守恒和分类，但难以处理抽象概念。
- Formal operational stage (11+ years): abstract reasoning, hypothesis testing, and systematic problem-solving develop. | 形式运算阶段（11岁以上）：发展出抽象推理、假设检验和系统性解决问题的能力。
9. Key Statistical Tests and Data Handling | 关键统计检验与数据处理
GCSE Psychology requires students to handle data from tables, charts, and graphs. You should be able to identify and calculate basic descriptive statistics, interpret bar charts, histograms, scattergrams, and recognise normal and skewed distributions.
GCSE 心理学要求学生能处理来自表格、图表和图形的数据。你需要辨认并计算基本的描述统计量，解读条形图、直方图、散点图，并能识别正态分布和偏态分布。
A normal distribution is symmetrical around the mean. In a positively skewed distribution, the mode < median < mean, and the tail extends to the right. A negatively skewed distribution shows the mean < median < mode, with the tail to the left.
正态分布围绕均值对称。在正偏态分布中，众数 < 中位数 < 平均数，尾部向右延伸。在负偏态分布中，平均数 < 中位数 < 众数，尾部向左。
No inferential statistical tests (such as chi-square or t-tests) are required to be calculated at GCSE, but you may be asked to interpret whether a result is significant in given scenarios.
GCSE 不要求学生实际计算推断性统计检验（如卡方检验或 t 检验），但可能会要求根据给定情景判断结果是否显著。
10. Sampling Methods | 抽样方法
Researchers must select participants from a target population. The sampling method chosen affects the representativeness and generalisability of findings.
研究者必须从目标总体中选取被试。所选的抽样方法会影响研究结果的代表性和推广力。
| Method | Description | Advantage | Disadvantage |
| Random sampling | Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. | Potentially unbiased; representative if large. | Difficult to achieve; time-consuming. |
| Opportunity sampling | Selects participants who are readily available and willing. | Quick and convenient. | Likely to be biased; not representative. |
| Volunteer (self-selected) sampling | Participants offer to take part, e.g. through advertisements. | Easy; participants are motivated. | Volunteer bias; sample may be unrepresentative. |
| Stratified sampling | Subgroups within the population are identified, and participants are randomly selected from each in proportion. | Very representative. | Complex; requires detailed population knowledge. |
| Systematic sampling | Every nth person from a list is selected. | Simple and fairly representative. | Can be biased if the list order has a pattern. |
11. Neuropsychology: Synaptic Transmission | 神经心理学：突触传递
Neurons communicate at synapses. When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft. They bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, triggering either an excitatory or inhibitory response. Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine) make the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire; inhibitory ones (e.g., GABA) make it less likely to fire.
神经元在突触处传递信息。当动作电位到达突触前终末，神经递质被释放到突触间隙。这些递质与突触后神经元上的受体结合，引发兴奋性或抑制性反应。兴奋性递质（如多巴胺）使突触后神经元更可能发放；抑制性递质（如 GABA）则降低其发放的可能性。
Reuptake is the process by which unused neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron, terminating the signal. This mechanism is important in understanding how some drugs (e.g., SSRIs for depression) work by blocking reuptake to keep more neurotransmitter in the synapse.
再摄取是未使用的神经递质被突触前神经元重新吸收、从而终止信号的过程。这一机制对于理解某些药物（例如用于抑郁症的 SSRIs）的作用很重要：它们通过阻断再摄取，使突触中保持更多的递质。
12. Psychological Problems: Key Characteristics & Theories | 心理问题：关键特征与理论
The GCSE specification covers the characteristics, theories, and treatments of depression and addiction (or unipolar depression and drug addiction). For depression, cognitive theories such as Beck’s negative triad (negative views of self, world, and future) and Ellis’s ABC model (Activating event, Belief, Consequence) are central. Biological explanations include genetic vulnerability and neurotransmitter imbalances (e.g., low serotonin).
GCSE 大纲涵盖抑郁症和成瘾（或单相抑郁症与药物成瘾）的特征、理论与治疗。对于抑郁症，贝克负性认知三联（对自我、世界和未来的负面看法）和埃利斯的 ABC 模型（激发事件、信念、后果）是核心的认知理论。生物学解释包括遗传易感和神经递质失衡（如血清素水平低）。
Treatments for depression include cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), which challenges irrational thoughts, and antidepressant medication. For addiction, biological theories focus on dopamine reward pathways and tolerance/withdrawal, while psychological theories highlight peer influence and operant conditioning. Treatments include drug therapies (e.g., methadone for heroin) and talking therapies.
抑郁症的治疗包括挑战非理性思维的认知行为疗法 (CBT) 以及抗抑郁药物。对于成瘾，生物学理论关注多巴胺奖励通路与耐受性/戒断反应，心理学理论则强调同伴影响和操作性条件反射。治疗包括药物疗法（如用于海洛因的美沙酮）和谈话治疗。
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