📚 Year 11 AQA Chemistry: Vocabulary & Terminology Quick Study Guide | AQA 化学词汇术语速记指南
Mastering key vocabulary is essential for success in AQA GCSE Chemistry. This guide provides clear, concise definitions of the most important terms you need to memorise, organised by topic. Each term is paired with its Chinese translation to help you build a bilingual understanding and speed up your revision.
掌握核心词汇是 AQA GCSE 化学考试成功的关键。本指南按照主题整理了需要记忆的重要术语，给出清晰简明的定义，并附上中文翻译，帮助你建立双语理解，高效复习。
1. Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table | 原子结构与元素周期表
Atom: The smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist. It consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
原子: 化学元素能够独立存在的最小粒子，由含有质子和中子的原子核以及围绕的电子组成。
Element: A substance made up of only one type of atom.
元素: 仅由一种原子组成的物质。
Compound: A substance formed when two or more elements are chemically bonded together in fixed proportions.
化合物: 两种或多种元素以固定的比例通过化学键结合形成的物质。
Proton: Positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus. The number of protons (atomic number) defines the element.
质子: 位于原子核中带正电的亚原子粒子。质子数（原子序数）决定了元素种类。
Neutron: Neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus. Mass ≈ 1 atomic mass unit (amu).
中子: 位于原子核中的不带电的亚原子粒子，质量约 1 原子质量单位。
Electron: Negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus in shells. Negligible mass.
电子: 带负电的亚原子粒子，在轨道上绕核运动，质量可忽略不计。
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. They have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
同位素: 质子数相同而中子数不同的同种元素的原子。它们具有相同的原子序数但不同的质量数。
Ion: A charged particle formed when an atom (or group of atoms) loses or gains electrons. Cations are positive, anions are negative.
离子: 原子（或原子团）失去或得到电子后形成的带电粒子。阳离子带正电，阴离子带负电。
Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ): The average mass of all isotopes of an element, taking into account their abundance, compared to 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
相对原子质量（Aᵣ）: 某元素所有同位素按丰度计算的平均质量与碳-12原子质量的 1/12 的比值。
Aᵣ = Σ (isotope mass × abundance) / total abundance
2. Bonding, Structure and Properties | 键合、结构与性质
Ionic bond: The strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from a metal atom to a non-metal atom.
离子键: 带相反电荷的离子之间强烈的静电吸引力，由金属原子向非金属原子转移电子形成。
Covalent bond: A bond formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two non-metal atoms.
共价键: 两个非金属原子之间通过共用电子对形成的键。
Metallic bond: The electrostatic attraction between positively charged metal ions and a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.
金属键: 带正电的金属离子与“电子海”（离域电子）之间的静电吸引力。
Giant ionic lattice: Regular repeating arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions held together by strong ionic bonds. High melting point, conducts electricity when molten or in solution.
巨型离子晶格: 正负离子交替排列的有序立体结构，由强离子键维系。熔点高，熔融或溶于水时可导电。
Simple molecular substance: Small molecules with weak intermolecular forces between them. Low melting and boiling points; do not conduct electricity.
简单分子物质: 由弱分子间作用力维系的小分子。熔沸点低，不导电。
Giant covalent structure: Huge network of atoms joined by covalent bonds. Examples: diamond (carbon atoms in tetrahedral arrangement), graphite (layered with delocalised electrons), silicon dioxide. Very high melting points.
巨型共价结构: 由共价键连接的大规模原子网络。如金刚石（碳原子呈四面体排列）、石墨（层状结构且具有离域电子）、二氧化硅。熔点极高。
Delocalised electrons: Electrons that are not attached to a single atom or a specific bond but are free to move throughout the structure – found in metallic bonding and graphite.
离域电子: 不依附于某个特定原子或化学键、可在整个结构中自由移动的电子，存在于金属键和石墨中。
Alloy: A mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. The different-sized atoms disrupt the regular metallic lattice, making alloys harder than pure metals.
合金: 由两种或多种元素组成的混合物，其中至少有一种是金属。大小不同的原子扰乱了规则的金属晶格，使合金比纯金属更硬。
3. Quantitative Chemistry | 定量化学
Relative formula mass (Mᵣ): The sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in the formula unit of a compound. For ionic compounds it is often called relative formula mass; for molecules it is relative molecular mass.
相对式量（Mᵣ）: 化合物化学式中所有原子的相对原子质量之和。离子化合物常称为相对式量，分子则称相对分子质量。
Mole: 0²³ particles (Avogadro constant). The mass of one mole of a substance is its Mᵣ in grams.
摩尔: 物质的量的 SI 单位。1 mol 恰好包含 6.022 × 10²³ 个微粒（阿伏伽德罗常数）。1 mol 物质的质量等于其相对式量的克数。
Number of moles = mass (g) / molar mass (g/mol)
摩尔数 = 质量 (g) / 摩尔质量 (g/mol)
Limiting reactant: The reactant that is completely used up first in a reaction, stopping the reaction and determining the maximum amount of product formed.
限量反应物: 首先被完全消耗的反应物，反应因此停止，它决定了生成物的最大产量。
Percentage yield: The efficiency of a reaction, calculated by: (actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100%. Yields are often below 100% due to incomplete reactions, side reactions or product lost during purification.
产率: 反应效率的度量，计算公式（实际产量 / 理论产量）× 100%。由于不完全反应、副反应或纯化损失，产率常低于 100%。
Atom economy: A measure of the proportion of reactant atoms that become part of the desired product. Higher atom economy means less waste.
原子经济性: 衡量反应物原子进入目标产物的比例。原子经济性越高，废物越少。
Atom economy = (Mᵣ of desired product / sum of Mᵣ of all reactants) × 100%
Concentration: d in a given volume of solution. Usually measured in g/dm³ or mol/dm³. (1 dm³ = 1000 cm³).
浓度: 单位体积溶液中溶解的溶质的量。常用单位 g/dm³ 或 mol/dm³（1 dm³ = 1000 cm³）。
Titration: An experimental technique used to determine the concentration of an acid or alkali by neutralisation with a standard solution, using an indicator to find the end point.
滴定: 利用中和反应和标准溶液，借助指示剂确定终点，来计算酸或碱浓度的实验方法。
4. Chemical Changes | 化学变化
Acid: A substance that donates H⁺ ions in aqueous solution. Has a pH less than 7.
酸: 在水溶液中释放 H⁺ 离子的物质，pH 小于 7。
Base: A substance that neutralises an acid, often a metal oxide or hydroxide. Soluble bases are called alkalis and release OH⁻ ions in water.
碱: 能中和酸的物质，常为金属氧化物或氢氧化物。可溶性的碱称为碱溶液，在水中释放 OH⁻ 离子。
Neutralisation: an : The reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water. In terms of ions: H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l).
中和: 酸与碱反应生成盐和水。离子方程式：H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)。
H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)
Oxidation: Loss of electrons by a substance during a chemical reaction. Also defined as gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.
氧化: 物质在化学反应中失去电子，也可定义为得氧或失氢。
Reduction: Gain of electrons by a substance. Also defined as loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
还原: 物质得到电子，也可定义为失氧或得氢。
Redox reaction: A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
氧化还原反应: 氧化和还原同时发生的化学反应。
Reactivity series: A list of metals in order of their tendency to lose electrons and form positive ions. More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their compounds.
金属活动性顺序: 金属按照失去电子形成阳离子的倾向顺序排列。较活泼的金属可以从不活泼金属的化合物中将其置换出来。
Electrolysis: The process of using direct electric current to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Ionic compounds are decomposed into their elements at the electrodes.
电解: 利用直流电驱动非自发化学反应的过程。离子化合物在电极处分解为相应元素。
5. Energy Changes | 能量变化
Exothermic reaction: A reaction that transfers thermal energy to the surroundings, causing a temperature rise. Examples: combustion, neutralisation. ΔH is negative.
放热反应: 向环境释放热能的反应，导致温度升高，如燃烧、中和。ΔH 为负值。
Endothermic reaction: A reaction that takes in thermal energy from the surroundings, causing a temperature drop. Examples: thermal decomposition, photosynthesis. ΔH is positive.
吸热反应: 从环境吸收热能的反应，导致温度下降，如热分解、光合作用。ΔH 为正值。
Activation energy: The minimum amount of kinetic energy that colliding particles must have in order to start a reaction.
活化能: 碰撞粒子为引发反应所必须具备的最低动能。
Bond energy: The energy required to break one mole of a particular covalent bond in the gas phase, or the energy released when forming one mole of that bond. Bond breaking is endothermic; bond making is exothermic.
键能: 在气相中断裂 1 mol 特定共价键所需的能量，或形成该键所释放的能量。键断裂吸热，键形成放热。
Overall energy change (ΔH): ΔH = total energy absorbed to break bonds – total energy released when bonds form.
总能量变化（ΔH）: ΔH = 断裂键吸收的总能量 – 形成键释放的总能量。
ΔH = Σ(bond energies of bonds broken) – Σ(bond energies of bonds made)
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being chemically used up. It provides an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy.
催化剂: 能加快反应速率而自身在化学上未被消耗的物质。它提供了一条活化能较低的反应路径。
6. Rate and Extent of Chemical Change | 化学反应速率与限度
Rate of reaction: The speed at which reactants are used up or products are formed. Measured as change in concentration, mass or volume per unit time.
反应速率: 反应物被消耗或生成物形成的快慢程度，以单位时间内浓度、质量或体积的变化量来衡量。
Collision theory: ust collide with sufficient energy (≥ activation energy) and with the correct orientation.
碰撞理论: 发生反应要求微粒必须碰撞、且碰撞能量不低于活化能，同时碰撞取向正确。
Factors affecting rate: Concentration, pressure (for gases), surface area of solids, temperature and use of a catalyst. Increasing any of these (except catalyst) increases the frequency of effective collisions.
影响速率的因素: 浓度、压强（气体）、固体表面积、温度和催化剂的使用。增加这些因素（催化剂除外）可提高有效碰撞频率。
Rate ∝ collision frequency × fraction of collisions with E ≥ Eₐ
Reversible reaction: A reaction that can proceed in both the forward and backward directions under the same conditions. Represented by the ⇌ symbol.
可逆反应: 在相同条件下既能正向进行又能逆向进行的反应，用符号 ⇌ 表示。
Dynamic equilibrium: In a closed system, a reversible reaction reaches equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction. Concentrations of reactants and products remain constant, but the reactions are still occurring.
动态平衡: 在封闭体系中，当正反应速率与逆反应速率相等时达到的平衡状态。各物质浓度保持不变，但反应仍在进行。
Le Chatelier's Principle: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure or temperature, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the change.
勒夏特列原理: 处于平衡的体系在受到浓度、压强或温度变化时，平衡会向削弱这种变化的方向移动。
7. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学
Hydrocarbon: A compound containing only hydrogen and carbon atoms.
烃: 仅含碳和氢原子的化合物。
Alkane: A homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂. They have single C–C bonds. Examples: methane CH₄, ethane C₂H₆.
烷烃: 通式为 CₙH₂ₙ₊₂ 的饱和烃同系物，只含碳碳单键。例如甲烷 CH₄、乙烷 C₂H₆。
Alkene: bons containing at least one C=C double bond. General formula CₙH₂ₙ. Example: ethene C₂H₄.
烯烃: 含至少一个 C=C 双键的不饱和烃同系物，通式 CₙH₂ₙ。例如乙烯 C₂H₄。
Homologous series: A family of organic compounds with the same functional group, similar chemical properties and a general formula. Successive members differ by a CH₂ unit.
同系物: 具有相同官能团、相似化学性质和通式的一系列有机化合物，相邻成员相差一个 CH₂ 单元。
Functional group: haracteristic reactions. Alkanes have no functional group; alkenes have C=C; alcohols have –OH; carboxylic acids have –COOH.
官能团: 赋予同系物特定反应特性的原子或原子团。烷烃无官能团；烯烃为 C=C；醇为 –OH；羧酸为 –COOH。
Cracking: Thermal decomposition of long-chain hydrocarbons into shorter, more useful alkanes and alkenes. Catalytic cracking uses a hot catalyst; steam cracking uses steam and high temperature.
裂解: 将长链烃热分解为更短、更有用的烷烃和烯烃的过程。催化裂解使用热催化剂；蒸汽裂解使用水蒸气和高温。
Fractional distillation: Separating crude oil into fractions with different boiling ranges. Hydrocarbons with shorter chains have lower boiling points and condense higher up the column.
分馏: 将原油分离成不同沸程馏分的过程。碳链越短的烃沸点越低，在塔的上部冷凝。
Addition polymerisation: Many small alkene molecules (monomers) join together under pressure with a catalyst to form a long-chain polymer. No other product is made.
加成聚合: 许多小分子烯烃（单体）在催化剂和压力下连接形成长链聚合物，仅生成聚合物一种产物。
n C₂H₄ → –(CH₂–CH₂)–ₙ (poly(ethene))
Alcohols: Homologous series with the functional group –OH. General formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH. Example: ethanol C₂H₅OH. Soluble in water, used as fuels and solvents.
醇: 官能团为 –OH 的同系物，通式 CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH，如乙醇 C₂H₅OH。可溶于水，用作燃料和溶剂。
Carboxylic acids: Homologous series with functional group –COOH. Weak acids, partially ionise in water. Example: ethanoic acid CH₃COOH.
羧酸: 官能团为 –COOH 的同系物，属于弱酸，在水中部分电离。例如乙酸 CH₃COOH。
8. Chemical Analysis | 化学分析
Pure substance (in chemistry): A single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance. Has a sharp melting and boiling point.
纯物质（化学意义上）: 单一元素或化合物，不含有其他物质，具有固定的熔点和沸点。
Formulation: A complex mixture designed as a useful product, where each component contributes a specific property. Examples: paints, medicines, alloys, cleaning products.
配方制品: 为获得实用产品而设计的复杂混合物，其中每种成分提供特定性质。如涂料、药品、合金、清洁剂。
Chromatography: An analytical technique used to separate mixtures of soluble substances. A mobile phase (solvent) carries the mixture through a stationary phase (paper or thin layer).
色谱法: 分离可溶性混合物的分析技术。流动相（溶剂）携带混合物通过固定相（纸或薄层板）。
Rf value: by spot / distance moved by solvent front. Used to identify substances in chromatography.
比移值（Rf）: 点移动距离 / 溶剂前沿移动距离，用于色谱中的物质鉴定。
Rf = distance substance moved / distance solvent front moved
Flame test: A qualitative test for metal
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