📚 Year 10 Eduqas Science: Core Concepts Revision | 十年级 Eduqas 科学：核心知识点梳理
Year 10 Eduqas Science lays the foundation for success at GCSE, covering key ideas in biology, chemistry and physics. This guide revisits the essential topics you need to master, from cell biology and atomic structure to energy and electricity. Use it alongside your class notes to strengthen understanding, identify gaps and build confidence before assessments.
十年级 Eduqas 科学课程为 GCSE 的成功奠定基础，涵盖生物学、化学和物理学的核心概念。本指南带你重温必须掌握的关键知识，从细胞生物学、原子结构到能量与电学。请结合课堂笔记使用，加深理解，发现薄弱环节，为测评建立信心。
1. Cells and Microscopy | 细胞与显微镜
All living organisms are built from cells, which may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Eukaryotic cells (e.g. animal and plant cells) have a nucleus containing genetic material, while prokaryotic cells (e.g. bacteria) lack a nucleus and have free-floating DNA.
所有生物体都由细胞构成，细胞可分为原核细胞和真核细胞。真核细胞（如动植物细胞）有包含遗传物质的细胞核，而原核细胞（如细菌）没有细胞核，DNA 游离在细胞质中。
Key organelles include the cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria (for aerobic respiration) and ribosomes (for protein synthesis). Plant cells additionally possess a rigid cell wall, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
关键细胞器包括细胞膜、细胞质、线粒体（有氧呼吸）和核糖体（蛋白质合成）。植物细胞还具备坚硬的细胞壁、一个大型中央液泡以及进行光合作用的叶绿体。
image size ÷ actual size. Staining with iodine or methylene blue makes structures more visible.
光学显微镜让我们能观察细胞和亚细胞结构。放大倍数与实际大小之间的关系为：放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小。用碘液或亚甲蓝染色能让结构更清晰可见。
2. Cell Division and Transport | 细胞分裂与物质运输
Cells multiply through the cell cycle, including DNA replication and mitosis. Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells and is essential for growth, repair and asexual reproduction. The process involves prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
细胞通过细胞周期进行增殖，包括 DNA 复制和有丝分裂。有丝分裂产生两个遗传上完全相同的子细胞，对生长、修复和无性繁殖至关重要。该过程包括前期、中期、后期和末期。
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to low concentration, passive and requiring no energy. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane, while active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient using energy from respiration.
扩散是物质粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净运动，属于被动运输，不需要能量。渗透是水通过半透膜的扩散，而主动运输则利用呼吸作用提供的能量将物质逆浓度梯度转运。
In plants, root hair cells absorb mineral ions by active transport, and water enters by osmosis. Turgor pressure keeps plants upright; a lack of water causes wilting.
在植物中，根毛细胞通过主动运输吸收矿物质离子，水分则通过渗透进入。膨压使植物保持直立；缺水则导致萎蔫。
3. Organisation and Digestion | 组织层级与消化系统
Cells specialise and group into tissues, organs and organ systems. For example, the stomach is an organ made of muscular, glandular and epithelial tissues. The digestive system breaks down large insoluble food molecules into small soluble ones that can be absorbed.
细胞特化并形成组织、器官和器官系统。例如，胃是由肌肉组织、腺体组织和上皮组织构成的器官。消化系统将大分子不溶性食物分解成小分子可溶性物质以便吸收。
Carbohydrates are digested by amylase into simple sugars; proteases break proteins into amino acids; lipases break lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. Bile, produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fats and neutralises stomach acid, creating alkaline conditions for small intestine enzymes.
碳水化合物被淀粉酶消化为单糖；蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸；脂肪酶将脂类分解为脂肪酸和甘油。胆汁在肝脏生成、胆囊储存，能乳化脂肪并中和胃酸，为小肠中的酶创造碱性环境。
The small intestine is the main site of absorption, with villi providing a large surface area. The large intestine absorbs water, and the rectum stores faeces before egestion.
小肠是主要的吸收部位，绒毛提供了巨大的表面积。大肠吸收水分，直肠在排遗前储存粪便。
4. Infection, Disease and Immunity | 感染、疾病与免疫
Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists. They cause communicable diseases such as measles, salmonella, athlete's foot and malaria. Transmission can be direct, airborne, by vectors or via contaminated food and water.
病原体包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。它们引起麻疹、沙门氏菌感染、足癣和疟疾等传染性疾病。传播途径有直接接触、空气传播、媒介传播或通过受污染的食物和水。
The human body has non-specific defences: skin as a barrier, nasal hairs, mucus, stomach acid and phagocytosis by white blood cells. Specific immune responses involve lymphocytes producing antibodies that bind to antigens and antitoxins that neutralise toxins.
人体拥有非特异性防御机制：皮肤屏障、鼻毛、黏液、胃酸以及白细胞的吞噬作用。特异性免疫反应涉及淋巴细胞产生抗体与抗原结合，以及产生抗毒素中和毒素。
Vaccination introduces harmless forms of a pathogen, triggering antibody production so that memory cells can respond rapidly upon re-infection. Antibiotics kill bacteria but are ineffective against viruses. Painkillers relieve symptoms without killing pathogens.
疫苗接种引入病原体的无害形式，刺激抗体产生，使得记忆细胞在再次感染时能快速反应。抗生素能杀死细菌，但对病毒无效。止痛药仅缓解症状，不杀灭病原体。
5. Bioenergetics: Photosynthesis and Respiration | 生物能量学：光合作用与呼吸作用
is: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. It is endothermic because energy is transferred from the environment to the chloroplasts.
光合作用在叶绿体中进行，利用光能将二氧化碳和水转化为葡萄糖和氧气。总反应式为：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂。这是一个吸热反应，因为能量从环境转移到了叶绿体中。
Limiting factors include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. Farmers exploit these to optimise crop growth in greenhouses. Glucose is used for respiration, converted to starch for storage, or used to make cellulose, amino acids and lipids.
限制因素包括光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。农民利用这些因素在温室中优化作物生长。葡萄糖用于呼吸作用，可转化为淀粉储存，或用于制造纤维素、氨基酸和脂类。
y). It takes place in mitochondria. Anaerobic respiration in animals produces lactic acid; in plants and yeast, it produces ethanol and CO₂ (fermentation).
有氧呼吸在氧气存在时从葡萄糖中释放能量：C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O（+ 能量）。该过程发生在线粒体中。动物在缺氧时进行无氧呼吸产生乳酸；植物和酵母则产生乙醇和 CO₂（发酵）。
6. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table | 原子结构与元素周期表
Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells. Proton number (atomic number) determines the element, while nucleon number (mass number) is the sum of protons and neutrons. Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
原子由包含质子和中子的原子核以及核外电子层构成。质子数（原子序数）决定了元素种类，而核子数（质量数）是质子数与中子数之和。同位素质子数相同，但中子数不同。
In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. Groups contain elements with similar chemical properties because they share the same number of outer-shell electrons. Periods correspond to the number of occupied electron shells.
在现代周期表中，元素按原子序数递增的顺序排列。族中的元素化学性质相似，因为它们最外层电子数相同。周期数对应已占据的电子层数。
Metals are found on the left and centre, non-metals on the right. Group 1 alkali metals are highly reactive, Group 7 halogens become less reactive down the group, and Group 0 noble gases are inert due to full outer shells. Transition metals form coloured compounds and act as catalysts.
金属位于周期表左侧和中部，非金属在右侧。第 1 族碱金属反应性极强，第 7 族卤素从上往下反应性减弱，第 0 族稀有气体因最外层已满而呈惰性。过渡金属能形成有色化合物并用作催化剂。
7. Bonding, Structure and Properties | 化学键、结构与性质
Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals, involving electron transfer and formation of oppositely charged ions. Giant ionic lattices have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved because ions are free to move.
离子键存在于金属与非金属之间，通过电子转移形成带相反电荷的离子。巨型离子晶格具有高熔点和高沸点，在熔融或溶解时可导电，因为离子可以自由移动。
Covalent bonding involves shared pairs of electrons between non-metal atoms. Simple molecular substances like H₂O and CO₂ have low melting points and do not conduct electricity. Giant covalent structures such as diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide are very strong, with high melting points.
共价键涉及非金属原子间共用电子对。像 H₂O 和 CO₂ 这样的简单分子物质熔点低且不导电。金刚石、石墨和二氧化硅等巨型共价结构非常坚固，熔点极高。
Metallic bonding features a sea of delocalised electrons surrounding positive metal ions. This explains why metals conduct heat and electricity and are malleable. Alloys are mixtures of metals with other elements, often harder than pure metals because the different sizes of atoms disrupt layers.
金属键的特征是离域电子海包围着正金属离子。这解释了金属为什么能导热导电并具有延展性。合金是金属与其他元素的混合物，通常比纯金属更硬，因为不同大小的原子打乱了层状结构。
8. Chemical Reactions and Quantitative Chemistry | 化学反应与计量化学
Word and symbol equations model chemical changes. The law of conservation of mass states that atoms are neither created nor destroyed, so equations must be balanced. Relative formula mass (Mᵣ) is the sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms in a formula.
用文字方程式和符号方程式模型化学变化。质量守恒定律指出，原子既不能创造也不能消灭，因此方程式必须配平。相对式量（Mᵣ）是一个化学式中所有原子的相对原子质量之和。
es × Mᵣ, you can calculate reacting masses. Concentration is measured in g/dm³ or mol/dm³.
摩尔是物质的量的单位；1 摩尔含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个粒子。使用 质量 = 摩尔数 × Mᵣ 可以计算反应质量。浓度的单位为 g/dm³ 或 mol/dm³。
roduct to theoretical maximum: (actual ÷ theoretical) × 100. Reasons for not achieving 100% include incomplete reactions, product loss during separation and side reactions.
产率百分比将实际产物质量与理论最大量比较：(实际 ÷ 理论) × 100。未能达到 100% 的原因包括反应不完全、分离过程中产物损失以及副反应发生。
9. Energy Changes in Chemistry | 化学反应中的能量变化
Exothermic reactions transfer thermal energy to the surroundings, increasing temperature, e.g. combustion and neutralisation. Endothermic reactions absorb energy, causing a temperature drop, e.g. thermal decomposition and photosynthesis.
放热反应向周围环境释放热能，温度升高，例子有燃烧和中和反应。吸热反应吸收能量，导致温度下降，例子有热分解和光合作用。
Reaction profiles show energy changes. The activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start a reaction. In an exothermic profile, products have lower energy than reactants; in endothermic, products have higher energy.
反应曲线图展示能量变化。活化能是启动反应所需的最低能量。在放热反应曲线中，生成物的能量低于反应物；在吸热反应中，生成物的能量更高。
mic and bond making exothermic. The overall energy change = energy absorbed to break bonds – on energy, providing an alternative pathway and increasing the rate without being used up.
断键吸热，成键放热。总能量变化 = 断键吸收的能量 - 成键释放的能量。催化剂降低活化能，提供替代反应途径，提高反应速率而自身不被消耗。
10. Energy and Electricity | 能量与电力
Energy can be stored in kinetic, thermal, chemical, gravitational potential, elastic potential and nuclear stores. It is transferred between stores via mechanical work, electrical work, heating or radiation. The principle of conservation of energy holds that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
能量可储存于动能、热能、化学能、重力势能、弹性势能和核能等储能方式中。通过机械做功、电做功、加热或辐射在储能方式间转移。能量守恒原理指出能量不能创造或消灭。
rs and lamps are linked. Potential difference (V) is measured in volts, current (I) in ampères and resistance (R) in ohms. Ohm's law: V = I × R.
电流是电荷的流动。电路中连接着电池、电阻和灯泡等元件。电压（V）的单位为伏特，电流（I）为安培，电阻（R）为欧姆。欧姆定律：V = I × R。
In a series circuit, current is the same everywhere and supply voltage is shared. In parallel circuits, the voltage across each branch equals the supply voltage, while total current is the sum of branch currents. Adding resistors in series increases total resistance; in parallel, total resistance decreases.
在串联电路中，各处电流相同，电源电压被各元件分担。在并联电路中，各支路电压等于电源电压，总电流为各支路电流之和。串联增加总电阻，并联则总电阻减小。
11. Particle Model and Density | 粒子模型与密度
The particle model describes solids, liquids and gases in terms of arrangement, movement and energy of particles. In solids, particles vibrate in fixed positions; in liquids, they are close but can move past each other; in gases, they are far apart and move randomly.
粒子模型从粒子的排列、运动和能量角度描述固体、液体和气体。固体粒子在固定位置振动；液体粒子紧邻但可以相互滑动；气体粒子相距很远并随机运动。
/cm³). Changes of state are physical changes: melting, freezing, boiling, condensing, sublimation. Mass is conserved during changes of state because no new substance is formed.
密度 (ρ) = 质量 ÷ 体积（kg/m³ 或 g/cm³）。物态变化是物理变化：熔化、凝固、沸腾、凝结、升华。物态变化时质量守恒，因为没有新物质生成。
Internal energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of particles. Heating increases internal energy. The energy needed to change state without temperature change is called latent heat; specific latent heat of fusion (melting) and vaporisation (boiling) are key values.
内能是粒子动能和势能的总和。加热增加内能。改变状态而不改变温度所需的热量称为潜热；熔化比潜热和汽化比潜热是关键数值。
12. Radioactivity and Atomic Physics | 放射性与原子物理
Some atomic nuclei are unstable and emit radiation to become more stable. Three types of nuclear radiation: alpha (α) — a helium nucleus, stopped by paper; beta (β) — a fast electron, stopped by aluminium; gamma (γ) — electromagnetic wave, reduced by thick lead.
某些原子核不稳定，通过放出辐射变得更稳定。三种核辐射：α 射线是氦核，可被纸张阻挡；β 射线是高速电子，可被铝板阻挡；γ 射线是电磁波，需要厚铅板才能减弱。
Radioactive decay is random, but half-life is the time taken for half the nuclei in a sample to decay. Background radiation comes from rocks, cosmic rays and medical uses. Safety precautions include shielding, distance and reducing exposure time.
放射性衰变是随机的，而半衰期是样品中一半原子核发生衰变所需的时间。背景辐射来自岩石、宇宙射线和医疗用途。防护措施包括屏蔽、增大距离和缩短曝露时间。
Nuclear equations show the changes in mass number and atomic number. Isotopes are used in medicine (tracers, radiotherapy) and industry (thickness gauges, smoke detectors). The nucleus was discovered by the Rutherford scattering experiment, revealing it is tiny, dense and positively charged.
核反应方程式显示质量数和原子序数的变化。同位素可用于医疗（示踪剂、放射治疗）和工业（测厚仪、烟雾探测器）。卢瑟福散射实验发现了原子核，并揭示它很小、致密且带正电。
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