📚 Year 10 Eduqas Biology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 10 Eduqas 生物：公式定理速查手册
This handbook packs the essential formulas, equations and key principles you need to revise for the Year 10 Eduqas Biology specification. Keep it close for rapid recall before tests and exams.
本手册整理了 Year 10 Eduqas 生物课程必备的核心公式、方程式和关键原理，便于你在测验与考试前快速回顾。
1. Microscope Formulas | 显微镜公式
ification. This tells you how many times larger a specimen appears compared to its actual size.
总放大倍数 = 目镜放大倍数 × 物镜放大倍数。该公式表明标本被放大的倍数。
Total magnification = eyepiece × objective
总放大倍数 = 目镜倍数 × 物镜倍数
Once you have the total magnification, you can work out the real size of a cell or structure.
得出总放大倍数后，就可以计算细胞或结构的实际尺寸。
Actual size = image size ÷ total magnification
实际大小 = 图像大小 ÷ 总放大倍数
Always convert all measurements to the same unit, typically micrometres (µm) or millimetres (mm), before calculating.
计算前务必将所有测量值统一为相同单位，通常使用微米 (µm) 或毫米 (mm)。
2. Enzyme Rate Calculations | 酶反应速率计算
The rate of an enzyme‑controlled reaction can be found by measuring how quickly a substrate disappears or a product appears.
酶促反应速率可通过测量底物消失或产物出现的快慢来确定。
Rate of reaction = amount of product formed ÷ time
反应速率 = 产物生成量 ÷ 时间
Alternatively, you can calculate rate from the time taken for a visible change (e.g. starch breakdown using iodine).
也可以根据可见变化所需的时间计算速率（例如用碘液检测淀粉分解）。
Rate ≈ 1 ÷ time taken
速率 ≈ 1 ÷ 所用时间
Remember that rate is influenced by temperature, pH and substrate concentration, following the lock‑and‑key model and denaturation principles.
要记住，速率受温度、pH 和底物浓度的影响，并遵循锁钥模型与变形失活原理。
3. Photosynthesis Word Equation | 光合作用词语方程式
Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.
光合作用将光能转化为化学能，利用二氧化碳和水生成葡萄糖和氧气。
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气
Light energy and chlorophyll are required for the reaction. The balanced chemical equation is:
该反应需要光能和叶绿素。配平后的化学方程式为：
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Glucose is then used in respiration, converted to starch for storage, or used to make cellulose and other molecules.
葡萄糖随后用于呼吸作用、转化为淀粉储存，或用于合成纤维素及其他分子。
4. Limiting Factors Principle | 限制因素原理
The rate of photosynthesis is governed by the factor that is in shortest supply. This is called the limiting factor.
光合作用速率受处于最短供应的那个因素控制，这个因素被称为限制因素。
The three main limiting factors are light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. At low light intensity, increasing CO₂ alone does not raise the rate.
三个主要限制因素是光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。在低光照强度下，仅提高 CO₂ 浓度无法提高速率。
Rate ∝ limiting factor (until another factor becomes limiting)
速率 ∝ 限制因素（直至另一因素成为限制）
The law of limiting factors explains plateau regions on graphs and is essential for interpreting photosynthesis experiments.
限制因素定律解释了图表的平台区域，对解读光合作用实验至关重要。
5. Aerobic Respiration Equation | 有氧呼吸方程式
Aerobic respiration releases energy through the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen. It is the most efficient way to produce ATP.
有氧呼吸在氧气参与下分解葡萄糖释放能量，是产生 ATP 最高效的方式。
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水 (+ 能量)
The balanced symbol equation is:
配平的符号方程式为：
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O (+ energy)
Most of the energy released is used to synthesise ATP, which powers active transport, muscle contraction and other cellular work.
释放的大部分能量用于合成 ATP，以驱动主动运输、肌肉收缩等细胞活动。
6. Anaerobic Respiration Equations | 无氧呼吸方程式
When oxygen is insufficient, cells can respire anaerobically, producing far less ATP.
当氧气不足时，细胞可进行无氧呼吸，产生的 ATP 少得多。
In animal cells and some bacteria, glucose is converted to lactic acid:
在动物细胞和某些细菌中，葡萄糖转化为乳酸：
glucose → lactic acid (+ small amount of energy)
葡萄糖 → 乳酸 (+ 少量能量)
In yeast and many plants, ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced instead:
在酵母和许多植物中，则产生乙醇和二氧化碳：
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ small amount of energy)
葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + 二氧化碳 (+ 少量能量)
Anaerobic respiration in yeast is exploited in baking and brewing; the lactic acid pathway causes muscle fatigue.
酵母的无氧呼吸被用于烘焙和酿造；乳酸途径则导致肌肉疲劳。
7. Osmosis and Water Potential | 渗透与水势
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential.
渗透是水分子通过半透膜，从水势较高区域向水势较低区域的净移动。
Water potential is affected by solute concentration: a dilute solution has a higher water potential than a concentrated one.
水势受溶质浓度影响：稀溶液的水势高于浓溶液。
Water moves down the water potential gradient.
水沿水势梯度移动。
Understanding osmosis explains why plant cells become turgid in hypotonic solutions and animal cells may burst (lysis).
理解渗透就能解释植物细胞在低渗液中变得坚挺，以及动物细胞可能破裂（溶血）。
8. Diffusion and Fick’s Law | 扩散与菲克定律
Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的被动运动。
The rate of diffusion depends on surface area, concentration gradient and diffusion distance. These are summarised by a principle similar to Fick’s law:
扩散速率取决于表面积、浓度梯度和扩散距离，这些因素可以总结为类似菲克定律的表述：
Rate of diffusion ∝ (surface area × concentration difference) ÷ diffusion distance
扩散速率 ∝ (表面积 × 浓度差) ÷ 扩散距离
Structures like alveoli and villi maximise surface area and minimise diffusion distance to speed up exchange.
像肺泡和绒毛等结构通过最大化表面积并缩短扩散距离来加速物质交换。
9. Cardiac Output | 心脏输出量
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It is a product of two measured values.
心脏输出量是心脏每分钟泵出的血液体积，由两个测量值相乘得到。
Cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate
心脏输出量 = 每搏输出量 × 心率
Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per beat. Heart rate is the number of beats per minute.
每搏输出量是左心室每次搏动泵出的血量；心率是每分钟心跳次数。
if stroke volume is 70 cm³ and heart rate is 72 beats/min, cardiac output = 5040 cm³/min.
例如，每搏输出量 70 cm³，心率 72 次/分钟，则心脏输出量为 5040 cm³/分钟。
10. Genetics – Punnett Square Probabilities | 遗传学 – 庞尼特方格概率
Mono hybrid crosses use Punnett squares to predict the probability of offspring inheriting particular genotypes and phenotypes.
单基因杂交利用庞尼特方格预测后代遗传特定基因型和表型的概率。
Probability of a genotype = (number of squares showing that genotype) ÷ 4
某基因型的概率 = 出现该基因型的方格数 ÷ 4
ous parents (Aa × Aa), the expected phenotype ratio for a dominant/recessive trait is 3:1.
对于两个杂合亲本的交配 (Aa × Aa)，显性/隐性性状的预期表型比为 3:1。
Always express probabilities as fractions, decimals or percentages and relate them to observed outcomes.
始终将概率表示为分数、小数或百分数，并将它们与实际观察结果相联系。
11. Population Estimation – Capture–Recapture | 种群估算 – 标记重捕法
For mobile organisms, population size can be estimated using the capture–recapture method based on a simple proportion.
对于活动性强的生物，可用基于简单比例的标记重捕法估算种群大小。
umber in first sample × number in second sample) ÷ number of marked individuals recaptured
种群数量 = (第一次捕获数 × 第二次捕获数) ÷ 重捕的标记个体数
M × C) ÷ R, where M = first sample marked, C = total second sample, R = marked recaptures.
常用记法：N = (M × C) ÷ R，其中 M = 首次标记数，C = 第二次样本总数，R = 重捕的标记个体数。
The method assumes random mixing, no migration and that marks are not lost between samples.
该方法假设个体随机混合、没有迁入迁出，且标记在两次取样之间不会丢失。
12. Biomass Transfer Efficiency | 生物量传递效率
Only a fraction of the biomass at one trophic level is transferred to the next level. The rest is lost through respiration, egestion and excretion.
一个营养级的生物量只有一小部分传递到下一营养级，其余部分通过呼吸、排遗和排泄散失。
Efficiency (%) = (biomass in higher trophic level ÷ biomass in lower trophic level) × 100
传递效率 (%) = (高营养级生物量 ÷ 低营养级生物量) × 100
Biomass is usually measured as dry mass (g or kg per m² in a given time). Typical efficiencies between trophic levels are around 10 %.
生物量通常以干重衡量（单位时间内每平方米的克或千克）。营养级间的典型传递效率约为 10%。
This low efficiency limits the length of food chains and explains why fewer top predators can be supported.
低效率限制了食物链的长度，也解释了为什么顶级捕食者的数量较少。
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