📚 Year 11 Edexcel Chemistry: Formula & Principle Quick Reference Handbook | Edexcel 化学 Year 11 公式定理速查手册
This quick reference handbook gathers the essential formulas, equations, and key principles that every Year 11 Edexcel Chemistry student needs at their fingertips. Whether you are calculating reacting masses, predicting yields, determining concentrations, or analysing energy changes, these tools will support your revision and problem-solving skills.
本速查手册汇集了每位 Year 11 Edexcel 化学学生必须掌握的基本公式、方程式和关键原理。无论是计算反应质量、预测产率、确定浓度还是分析能量变化，这些工具都将助力你的复习和解题能力。
1. Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) and Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) | 相对原子质量与相对分子质量
The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the weighted average mass of its naturally occurring isotopes compared to 1/12th of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
元素的相对原子质量 (Ar) 是其天然存在的同位素相对于碳-12原子质量1/12的加权平均质量。
It is calculated from isotopic abundances using the formula:
由同位素丰度计算的公式如下：
Ar = Σ (isotopic mass × percentage abundance) / 100
The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the sum of the Ar values of all atoms in a covalent molecule. For ionic compounds, the term relative formula mass is used and calculated in the same way.
相对分子质量 (Mr) 是共价分子中所有原子的 Ar 之和。对于离子化合物，使用相对式量这一术语，计算方法相同。
For example, Mr of H2SO4 = (2×1) + 32 + (4×16) = 98.
例如，H2SO4 的 Mr = (2×1) + 32 + (4×16) = 98。
2. The Mole and Molar Mass | 摩尔和摩尔质量
the SI unit for amount of substance. One mole of any substance contains exactly 6.02 × 1023 particles (Avogadro constant).
摩尔是物质的量的SI单位。1摩尔的任何物质都恰好包含 6.02 × 1023 个粒子（阿伏伽德罗常数）。
The number of moles (n) is linked to mass (m) in grams and molar mass (Mr in g/mol) by the core equation:
摩尔数 (n) 与质量 m（克）和摩尔质量 Mr（g/mol）之间的关系由核心公式给出：
n = m / Mr
This equation can be rearranged to find mass (m = n × Mr) or molar mass (Mr = m / n). Always ensure mass is in grams.
该公式可变形为求质量 (m = n × Mr) 或摩尔质量 (Mr = m / n)。务必确保质量单位为克。
3. Reacting Mass Calculations | 反应质量计算
Using a balanced chemical equation, the mole ratio between reactants and products allows you to calculate the mass of a substance consumed or produced.
利用配平的化学方程式，反应物与生成物之间的摩尔比能让你计算出消耗或生成的物质质量。
The general steps are: (1) Convert known mass to moles using n = m / Mr ation to find moles of the target substance. (3) Convert moles back to mass with m = n × Mr.
一般步骤为：(1) 用 n = m / Mr 将已知质量转换为摩尔数。(2) 利用方程式中的摩尔比求出目标物质的摩尔数。(3) 用 m = n × Mr 将摩尔数转换回质量。
For the reaction 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO, 2 moles of Mg produce 2 moles of MgO, giving a 1:1 mole ratio between Mg and MgO.
对于反应 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO，2 mol Mg 生成 2 mol MgO，Mg 与 MgO 的摩尔比为 1:1。
4. Percentage Yield | 百分产率
The percentage yield compares the actual mass of product obtained from an experiment to the theoretical mass predicted by calculation. It reflects the efficiency of the reaction and losses during purification.
百分产率将实验实际获得的产物质量与计算预测的理论质量进行比较。它反映了反应效率以及提纯过程中的损失。
Percentage Yield = (Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield) × 100%
A yield of 100% is rare; common reasons for lower yields include incomplete reactions, side reactions, and mechanical losses during filtration or transfer.
100%的产率十分罕见；产率较低的常见原因包括反应不完全、副反应以及过滤或转移过程中的机械损失。
5. Atom Economy | 原子经济性
Atom economy measures the proportion of reactant atoms that end up in the desired product. It is a key concept in green chemistry and sustainable processes.
原子经济性衡量的是反应物原子最终进入目标产物的比例。它是绿色化学和可持续发展过程中的核心概念。
Atom Economy = (Mr of Desired Product / Sum of Mr of All Reactants) × 100%
Reactions with high atom economy produce less waste and are more efficient. Addition reactions typically have 100% atom economy, whereas substitution reactions often have lower values.
原子经济性高的反应产生的废料较少、效率更高。加成反应通常具有100%的原子经济性，而取代反应往往数值较低。
6. Concentration of Solutions | 溶液的浓度
Concentration describes how much solute is dissolved in a given volume of solution. It can be expressed in two common ways: mol/dm3 or g/dm3.
浓度描述一定体积溶液中溶解了多少溶质。有两种常用表达方式：mol/dm3 或 g/dm3。
c (mol/dm3) = n / V (dm3)
Concentration (g/dm3) = Mass (g) / Volume (dm3)
To convert between the two: concentration (g/dm3) = c (mol/dm3) × Mr. Remember that 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3; always convert volumes to dm3 when using molar concentration.
两者间的转换关系为：浓度 (g/dm3) = c (mol/dm3) × Mr。记住 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3；使用摩尔浓度时一定将体积转换为 dm3。
In titration calculations, when the reaction ratio is not 1:1, use the relationship: (nA / coefficientA) = (nB / coefficientB) to relate the moles of acid and base.
在滴定计算中，若反应系数比不为1:1，用电解质酸与碱的摩尔数关系式：(nA / 系数A) = (nB / 系数B) 进行计算。
7. Gas Volumes and Molar Volume | 气体体积与摩尔体积
Under room temperature and pressure (RTP: 20-25°C, 1 atm), one mole of any gas occupies approximately 24 dm3 (or 24 000 cm3). This is called the molar gas volume.
在常温常压下 (RTP: 20-25°C, 1 atm)，1摩尔任何气体大约占据 24 dm3（或 24000 cm3）。这被称为气体摩尔体积。
Volume (dm3) = n × 24
Alternatively, using cm3: Volume (cm3) = n × 24 000.
或者使用 cm3：体积 (cm3) = n × 24000。
This relationship is used to calculate the volume of gas produced in a reaction or the number of moles from a measured gas volume.
这一关系可用于计算反应中产生的气体体积，或根据测量的气体体积反推摩尔数。
8. Measuring Enthalpy Change | 测量焓变
When a reaction is carried out in solution, the heat transferred (q) can be measured using a simple calorimeter. The temperature change of the solution is used to calculate q:
当反应在溶液中进行时，可利用简易量热计测量传递的热量 (q)。通过溶液的温度变化来计算 q：
q = m × c × ΔT
specific heat capacity (for water, c = 4.18 J/g°C), and ΔT is the temperature change (°C).
其中 m 为溶液（通常是水）的质量（g），c 为比热容（水的 c = 4.18 J/g°C），ΔT 为温度变化 (°C)。
To find the enthalpy change per mole, divide q by the number of moles that reacted, and add the correct sign: exothermic reactions have negative ΔH, endothermic reactions positive.
要计算每摩尔的焓变，用 q 除以反应的摩尔数，并添加正确的符号：放热反应 ΔH 为负，吸热反应 ΔH 为正。
ΔH = -q / n (for exothermic, q positive, ΔH negative)
This assumes that all heat is transferred to the solution, with no losses to the surroundings.
该计算假设所有热量都传递给溶液，没有向环境损失。
9. Enthalpy Change from Bond Energies | 键能计算焓变
Bond energy (enthalpy) is the energy required to break one mole of a given covalent bond in the gaseous state. Enthalpy change for a reaction can be estimated using average bond energies.
键能（焓）是断裂气态下1摩尔特定共价键所需的能量。可利用平均键能估算反应的焓变。
ΔH = Σ (Bond Energies of Bonds Broken) – Σ (Bond Energies of Bonds Made)
Breaking bonds is endothermic (positive energy), making bonds is exothermic (negative energy). The net ΔH determines whether the overall reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
断键是吸热过程（能量为正），成键是放热过程（能量为负）。净 ΔH 决定了总反应是放热还是吸热。
For a reaction such as H2 + Cl2 -H and Cl-Cl) have an energy sum, and the bonds made (2 × H-Cl) are subtracted to find ΔH.
对于反应 H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl，先求断裂的键（H-H 和 Cl-Cl）能量总和，再减去生成的键（2 × H-Cl）的能量，得到 ΔH。
10. Rates of Reaction | 反应速率
The rate of a chemical reaction measures how quickly reactants are converted into products. It can be expressed as the change in amount of a substance over time.
化学反应速率衡量反应物转变为生成物的快慢。它可以用某物质的量随时间的变化来表示。
Average Rate = Change in Amount (or Concentration) / Time
In the laboratory, rates are often followed by measuring the volume of gas evolved per unit time, the change in mass, or the time taken for a colour change.
在实验室中，常通过测量单位时间收集的气体体积、质量变化或颜色变化所需的时间来跟踪反应速率。
Collision theory explains that for a reaction to occur, particles must collide with sufficient energy (activation energy) and with the correct orientation. Increasing temperature, concentration, pressure, or surface area, or adding a catalyst, increases the rate by increasing the frequency and/or energy of successful collisions.
碰撞理论阐明，发生反应需要粒子以足够的能量（活化能）和正确的取向进行碰撞。升高温度、浓度、压强、增大表面积或加入催化剂，都可以通过增加有效碰撞的频率和/或能量来提高反应速率。
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