Year 10 CAIE Chemistry: Quick Reference Handbook of Formulas and Theorems | Year 10 CAIE 化学：公式定理速查手册

📚 Year 10 CAIE Chemistry: Quick Reference Handbook of Formulas and Theorems | Year 10 CAIE 化学：公式定理速查手册

This handbook presents a compact summary of the key formulas, equations, and theoretical principles required for the CAIE Year 10 Chemistry course. Each topic is paired in English and Chinese to support bilingual revision and quick reference before assessments.

本手册简要总结了 CAIE Year 10 化学课程所要求的关键公式、方程式和理论原理。每个主题均提供中英双语对照，便于双语复习和考前快速查阅。

1. Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass | 相对原子质量与相对分子质量

The relative atomic mass, Aᵣ, is the ratio of the average mass of an atom of an element to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. It has no unit.

相对原子质量 Aᵣ 是某元素一个原子的平均质量与一个碳-12原子质量的1/12的比值，没有单位。

The relative molecular mass, Mᵣ, is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule of the substance.

相对分子质量 Mᵣ 是物质一个分子中所有原子的相对原子质量之和。

Example: Mᵣ(H₂O) = 2 × Aᵣ(H) + Aᵣ(O) = 2 × 1 + 16 = 18

示例：Mᵣ(H₂O) = 2 × Aᵣ(H) + Aᵣ(O) = 2 × 1 + 16 = 18

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2. The Mole and Molar Mass | 摩尔与摩尔质量

One mole contains exactly 6.022 × 10²³ elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.).

摩尔（mol）是物质的量的国际单位。1 摩尔恰好包含 6.022 × 10²³ 个基本单元（原子、分子、离子等）。

The molar mass, M, is the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in g mol⁻¹. It is numerically equal to the relative formula mass in grams.

摩尔质量 M 是 1 摩尔物质的质量，单位为 g mol⁻¹，其数值等于以克为单位的相对式量。

The relationship among amount of substance, mass and molar mass is:

物质的量、质量和摩尔质量之间的关系为：

n = m / M

where n = amount of substance (mol), m = mass (g), M = molar mass (g mol⁻¹).

其中 n = 物质的量（mol），m = 质量（g），M = 摩尔质量（g mol⁻¹）。

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3. Gas Volumes and Molar Volume | 气体体积与摩尔体积

At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.), one mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24 dm³ (24 000 cm³). This is called the molar gas volume, Vₘ.

在室温和常压下（r.t.p.），任何气体 1 摩尔的体积均为 24 dm³（24 000 cm³），称为气体摩尔体积 Vₘ。

The amount of gas can be found from its measured volume using:

可利用气体体积计算其物质的量：

n = V / Vₘ

where V is the volume of the gas at r.t.p. (dm³) and Vₘ = 24 dm³ mol⁻¹.

其中 V 为气体在 r.t.p. 下的体积（dm³），Vₘ = 24 dm³ mol⁻¹。

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4. Concentration of Solutions | 溶液浓度

The concentration of a solution can be expressed in g dm⁻³ or in mol dm⁻³. The relationship between amount, concentration and volume is:

溶液浓度可以用 g dm⁻³ 或 mol dm⁻³ 表示。物质的量、浓度和体积的关系为：

c = n / V

re c = concentration (mol dm⁻³), n = amount of solute (mol), V = volume of solution (dm³).

其中 c = 浓度（mol dm⁻³），n = 溶质的物质的量（mol），V = 溶液的体积（dm³）。

For dilution of a solution, the number of moles of solute remains constant, so:

溶液稀释时溶质的物质的量保持不变，因此：

c₁V₁ = c₂V₂

where c₁ and V₁ are the initial concentration and volume, and c₂ and V₂ are the final concentration and volume.

其中 c₁、V₁ 为初始浓度和体积，c₂、V₂ 为最终浓度和体积。

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5. Empirical and Molecular Formulae | 经验式与分子式

The empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule.

经验式表示化合物中各元素原子的最简整数比。分子式表示一个分子中各元素原子的实际数目。

The molecular formula is a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula:

分子式是经验式的整数倍：

Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)ₙ

where n = Mᵣ of compound / Mᵣ of empirical formula.

其中 n = 化合物的 Mᵣ / 经验式的 Mᵣ。

Steps to find empirical formula: convert percentage by mass to moles, divide by the smallest mole value, and obtain the simplest ratio.

求经验式的步骤：将元素的质量百分数换算成摩尔数，除以最小的摩尔数，得出最简整数比。

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6. Reacting Masses and Stoichiometry | 反应质量与化学计量

The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation give the mole ratio of reactants and products. Use the mole ratio to calculate reacting masses.

配平的化学方程式中各物质的系数表示反应物与产物的摩尔比。利用摩尔比可计算反应质量。

mass A → moles A → moles B → mass B

where A and B are any two substances in the equation. Always work through moles.

其中 A 和 B 是方程式中的任意两种物质。计算时必须先转化为物质的量（摩尔）。

The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up first, limiting the amount of product formed. The other reactant is in excess.

限量反应物是首先被完全消耗的反应物，它限制了生成物的量。另一反应物则过量。

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7. Percentage Yield and Atom Economy | 产率与原子经济性

Percentage yield compares the actual yield obtained from an experiment with the theoretical yield calculated from stoichiometry:

产率将实验所得的实际产量与根据化学计量计算的理论产量进行比较：

% Yield = (Actual yield / Theoretical yield) × 100%

Atom economy assesses how efficiently atoms in the reactants are incorporated into the desired product:

原子经济性用于衡量反应物中原子被有效利用成为目标产物的效率：

% Atom economy = (Mᵣ of desired product / Σ Mᵣ of all products) × 100%

A higher atom economy means a more sustainable reaction with less waste.

原子经济性越高，反应越绿色、废物越少。

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8. Chemical Energetics and Bond Energies | 化学热力学与键能

In a chemical reaction, bonds are broken in the reactants and new bonds are formed in the products. Breaking bonds absorbs energy; forming bonds releases energy.

化学反应中，反应物内的化学键断裂，产物中形成新的化学键。断键吸热，成键放热。

The overall enthalpy change, ΔH, can be estimated from bond energies:

总焓变 ΔH 可通过键能进行估算：

ΔH = Σ(bond energies broken) − Σ(bond energies formed)

If ΔH is negative, the reaction is exothermic (gives out heat). If ΔH is positive, the reaction is endothermic (takes in heat).

若 ΔH 为负值，反应放热。若 ΔH 为正值，反应吸热。

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9. Reversible Reactions and Le Chatelier’s Principle | 可逆反应与勒夏特列原理

Many reactions are reversible, shown by the symbol ⇌. At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.

许多反应是可逆的，用符号 ⇌ 表示。达到平衡时，正逆反应速率相等，反应物和产物的浓度保持不变。

Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a system at dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium shifts to minimise the disturbance.

勒夏特列原理指出：如果改变影响化学平衡的一个条件，平衡将向减弱这种改变的方向移动。

Changes in concentration, pressure (for gases) and temperature can shift the equilibrium position according to this principle.

根据此原理，浓度、压强（对于气体）和温度的变化能导致平衡移动。

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10. Collision Theory and Rate of Reaction | 碰撞理论与反应速率

t energy (≥ activation energy) and with the correct orientation for a successful reaction.

碰撞理论解释反应如何发生：粒子必须发生有效碰撞，即具有足够能量（不低于活化能）并取向适当。

The rate of a chemical reaction is affected by:

影响化学反应速率的因素有：

- concentration of reactants (solution) / pressure of gas reactants

- 反应物浓度（溶液）/ 气体反应物压强

- particle size (surface area) of solids

- 固体颗粒大小（表面积）

- temperature

- 温度

- presence of a catalyst

- 催化剂

Each factor alters the frequency or effectiveness of collisions; a catalyst provides an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.

每个因素都改变碰撞的频率或有效性；催化剂能提供活化能较低的替代反应路径。

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11. Acids, Bases and pH | 酸、碱与pH值

An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor; a base is a proton acceptor. Alkalis are soluble bases that release OH⁻ ions in water.

酸是质子（H⁺）的给予体；碱是质子的接受体。可溶性碱在水溶液中释放 OH⁻ 离子，称为碱液。

lkalinity of an aqueous solution: pH < 7 is acidic, pH = 7 is neutral, pH > 7 is alkaline.

pH 标度（0 至 14）衡量水溶液的酸碱度：pH < 7 为酸性，pH = 7 为中性，pH > 7 为碱性。

In a neutralisation reaction, an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water. For a 1:1 reaction, the titration relation is:

中和反应中，酸与碱反应生成盐和水。对于 1:1 反应，滴定关系式为：

cₐVₐ = c_bV_b

= base, c = concentration, V = volume. This is derived from equal moles at neutralisation.

其中 a 代表酸，b 代表碱，c 为浓度，V 为体积。该式源于中和时酸的物质的量等于碱的物质的量。

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12. Organic Homologous Series Formulae | 有机同系物通式

Homologous series are families of organic compounds with the same functional group and a common general formula. Adjacent members differ by a CH₂ unit.

同系物是具有相同官能团且符合同一通式的一类有机化合物，相邻成员相差一个 CH₂ 单元。

The general formulae for key series covered in Year 10 are:

Year 10 需掌握的关键同系物通式如下：

Alkanes: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂

烷烃：CₙH₂ₙ₊₂

Alkenes: CₙH₂ₙ

烯烃：CₙH₂ₙ

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