📚 Year 10 Cambridge Philosophy: Glossary Quick-Memorisation Guide | 剑桥 Year 10 哲学术语速记指南
A deep grasp of philosophical vocabulary is the bedrock of success in Cambridge Year 10 Philosophy. Without precise terminology, arguments become vague and exam answers lack the clarity examiners expect. This guide groups essential terms by topic, pairing each English definition with a Chinese equivalent to build bilingual mastery and long‑term memory.
精准掌握哲学词汇是剑桥 Year 10 哲学取得成功的基石。术语不精确，论证便会含糊不清，答题也缺乏考官期待的清晰度。本指南按主题将核心术语分组，每个英文定义配以中文对应表述，帮助建立双语思维并实现长期记忆。
1. Epistemology – Knowledge and Belief | 认识论——知识与信念
A priori – ndent of experience, justified by reason alone (e.g., mathematical truths like 2 + 2 = 4).
先验知识 – 不依赖经验、仅凭理性即可获得辩护的知识（如 2 + 2 = 4 这类数学真理）。
A posteriori – knowledge that depends on sensory experience or empirical evidence (e.g., 'The cat is on the mat' requires observation).
后验知识 – 依赖感官经验或实证证据的知识（例如“猫在垫子上”需要通过观察来验证）。
Empiricism – the view that all concepts and knowledge originate in experience; the mind begins as a tabula rasa (blank slate). John Locke is a key figure.
经验主义 – 认为一切概念与知识均起源于经验；心灵最初是一块白板。约翰·洛克是代表人物。
Rationalism – the view that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and some truths are innate. Descartes is a major rationalist.
理性主义 – 认为理性是知识的主要来源，某些真理是天赋的。笛卡尔是重要理性主义者。
Justified true belief (JTB) – the traditional tripartite definition of knowledge: a person knows P if and only if P is true, the person believes P, and the person is justified in believing P. Gettier cases challenge this.
得到辩护的真信念（JTB） – 传统的知识三元定义：某人知道命题 P，当且仅当 P 为真，此人相信 P，且此人有理由或辩护地相信 P。盖梯尔案例对此提出了挑战。
2. Metaphysics – Reality and Existence | 形而上学——实在与存在
Ontology – the branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature and categories of being. It asks, 'What kinds of things exist?'
本体论 – 形而上学中研究存在之本质与范畴的分支。它问：“什么东西存在？”
Dualism – the view that mind and body are two fundamentally different substances. Descartes' substance dualism holds that the mind is non‑physical and the body is physical.
二元论 – 认为心灵与身体是两种根本不同的实体。笛卡尔的实体二元论主张心灵是非物质的，身体是物质的。
Materialism (physicalism) – the view that only physical matter exists, and mental states are brain states. It denies a separate non‑physical mind.
唯物主义（物理主义） – 认为只存在物质，心理状态就是大脑状态。它否定独立的非物质心灵。
Idealism – the view that reality is fundamentally mental or mind‑dependent. Berkeley's idealism claims that to be is to be perceived.
唯心主义 – 认为实在本质上是精神的或依赖于心灵的。贝克莱的唯心论主张存在即是被感知。
Free will – the ability to make choices that are not determined by prior causes. It is often contrasted with determinism.
自由意志 – 做出不受先前原因所决定的选择的能力。常与决定论相对。
Determinism – the theory that every event, including human actions, is causally determined by preceding events and laws of nature.
决定论 – 认为每个事件，包括人类行为，都由先前事件和自然规律因果地决定的理论。
3. Philosophy of Religion – God and Faith | 宗教哲学——上帝与信仰
Theism – belief in the existence of a God or gods, especially a creator who is both immanent and transcendent.
有神论 – 相信存在一位或多位神，尤其指一位既内在又超越的造物主。
Atheism – the absence of belief in any gods; the position that no deity exists.
无神论 – 不相信任何神的存在；主张没有神灵存在的立场。
Agnosticism – the view that it is impossible to know whether God exists, or the suspension of judgment on the question.
不可知论 – 认为人们无法知道上帝是否存在，或对此问题悬置判断。
Cosmological argument – an argument for God’s existence based on the fact of the universe’s existence. It asks, 'Why is there something rather than nothing?' and posits God as the First Cause.
宇宙论论证 – 基于宇宙存在这一事实论证上帝存在。它问“为什么是存在而不是虚无？”并设定上帝为第一因。
Teleological argument (design argument) – the argument that the complexity and apparent purpose in the universe point to a designer. William Paley’s watchmaker analogy is a classic example.
目的论论证（设计论证） – 认为宇宙的复杂性和显见的目的指向一位设计者。威廉·佩利的钟表匠类比是经典例子。
Problem of evil – the challenge to the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God posed by the existence of suffering and evil. The logical problem argues that the two are incompatible; the evidential problem argues that the amount of evil makes God’s existence unlikely.
恶的问题 – 苦难与恶的存在对全能至善的上帝提出的挑战。逻辑恶的问题主张二者不相容；证据恶的问题认为恶的数量使得上帝存在不太可能。
4. Ethics – Moral Theories | 伦理学——道德理论
Utilitarianism – the ethical theory that the right action is the one that maximises overall happiness or pleasure and minimises pain. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are key thinkers. The principle of utility is 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number'.
功利主义 – 认为正当的行为就是能最大化总体幸福或快乐、最小化痛苦的行为。边沁和密尔是核心人物。功利原则是“最大多数人的最大幸福”。
Deontology – duty‑based ethics, where actions are right or wrong according to a set of rules, regardless of consequences. Kant’s categorical imperative is central: 'Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.'
义务论 – 基于义务的伦理学，行为对错取决于一套规则，而不论后果如何。康德的绝对命令是核心：“只按照你能同时愿意它成为一条普遍法则的准则去行动。”
Virtue ethics – focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than rules or consequences. Aristotle’s ethics aims at eudaimonia (flourishing) through practising virtues (like courage, temperance, wisdom) as the golden mean between extremes.
德性伦理学 – 聚焦道德主体的品格，而非规则或后果。亚里士多德的伦理学以 eudaimonia（人的兴盛）为目标，通过实践德性（勇敢、节制、智慧等）作为两极之间的中道来实现。
Moral relativism – the view that moral judgments are true or false only relative to a particular culture, society, or individual. It denies universal moral truths.
道德相对主义 – 认为道德判断只有在相对于特定文化、社会或个人时才为真或假。它否认普遍的道德真理。
Moral absolutism – the view that certain actions are right or wrong regardless of context or consequences, e.g., torture is always wrong.
道德绝对主义 – 认为某些行为无论情境或后果如何都绝对是对的或是错的，例如虐待永远错误。
5. Logic and Argumentation | 逻辑与论证
Premise – a statement offered as a reason to support a conclusion in an argument.
前提 – 论证中用来支持结论的陈述。
Conclusion – the statement that an argument aims to prove or support.
结论 – 论证旨在证明或支持的陈述。
Deductive argument – an argument where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Example: all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal.
演绎论证 – 结论必然从前提推出的论证。如果前提为真，结论必定为真。例：所有人都会死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。
Inductive argument – an argument where the premises provide probable support for the conclusion, but not certainty. Example: the sun has risen every day in recorded history; therefore the sun will rise tomorrow.
归纳论证 – 前提为结论提供可能的支持而非必然性的论证。例：有史以来太阳每天都升起；所以太阳明天会升起。
Fallacy – a common error in reasoning that weakens the argument. Ad hominem attacks the person instead of the argument; straw man misrepresents an opponent’s view.
谬误 – 推理中常见的削弱论证的错误。人身攻击谬误攻击人而非论证；稻草人谬误歪曲对方观点。
Validity – a deductive argument is valid if the structure is such that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Validity does not guarantee the premises are actually true.
有效性 – 演绎论证中，若其结构保证前提为真时结论必然为真，则该论证有效。有效性不保证前提实际为真。
Soundness – a deductive argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are actually true.
可靠性 – 演绎论证如果有效且所有前提实际上为真，则该论证可靠。
6. Mind and Body | 心与身
Qualia – the subjective, qualitative character of conscious experiences, e.g., the redness of red or the pain of a headache. They are the 'what it is like' aspects.
感受质 – 意识体验的主观质性特征，例如红色的红感或头痛的痛感。它们是“那是怎样的”方面。
Intentionality – the capacity of mental states to be about something, to represent objects, properties, or states of affairs. Beliefs and desires have intentionality.
意向性 – 心理状态能够关涉某物、表征物体、属性或事态的能力。信念和欲望具有意向性。
Interactionism – a dualist position holding that mind and body causally interact. Descartes thought this happens in the pineal gland.
互动论 – 一种二元论立场，认为心灵与身体之间具有因果互动。笛卡尔认为这发生在松果腺中。
Epiphenomenalism – the view that mental states are caused by physical brain processes but have no causal power themselves; they are like steam from a train engine.
副现象论 – 认为心理状态由大脑物理过程引起，但其本身没有任何因果力；它们就像火车头冒出的蒸汽。
Functionalism – the theory that mental states are defined by their causal roles – what they do, not what they are made of. It allows that minds could be realised in non‑biological systems.
功能主义 – 认为心理状态由其因果角色定义——它们做什么，而不是由什么构成。它允许心灵可以在非生物系统中实现。
7. Political Philosophy – Authority and Justice | 政治哲学——权威与正义
Social contract – the idea that the legitimacy of the state and its authority derives from an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and accept certain obligations. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau developed different versions.
社会契约 – 国家及其权力的合法性源于个体之间为组成社会并接受一定义务而达成的隐性协议。霍布斯、洛克和卢梭提出了不同版本。
State of nature – a hypothetical condition before any political institutions, used to justify why we need government. Hobbes described it as 'solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short'.
自然状态 – 假设在任何政治制度之前的状态，用于论证为什么需要政府。霍布斯将其描述为“孤独、贫困、卑污、残忍而短寿”。
Natural rights – rights that individuals have simply by virtue of being human; they are not granted by any government. Locke argued for life, liberty, and property.
自然权利 – 个体仅仅凭作为人而拥有的权利；并非由政府授予。洛克主张生命、自由和财产权。
Distributive justice – the concern with how goods, wealth, and opportunities should be fairly distributed across society. Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness uses the 'veil of ignorance' to determine just principles.
分配正义 – 关注社会中的物品、财富和机会应该如何公平分配。罗尔斯作为公平的正义理论使用“无知之幕”来确定正义原则。
Positive liberty – the freedom to be one’s own master, to act upon one’s rational will – self‑mastery. Berlin contrasts this with negative liberty.
积极自由 – 成为自己主人、按理性意志行动的自由——自我主导。伯林将其与消极自由对比。
Negative liberty – freedom from external interference or coercion; the absence of obstacles, barriers, or constraints. 'Freedom from...'.
消极自由 – 免受外部干涉或强制的自由；没有阻碍、障碍或约束。“免于……的自由”。
8. Key Thinkers – Quick Biographical Links | 关键思想家——生平速联
Plato (c.428–348 BCE) – Student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Theory of Forms: the physical world is a shadow of a higher, unchanging reality. The Allegory of the Cave illustrates this.
柏拉图 – 苏格拉底的学生，亚里士多德的老师。理念论：物质世界是更高、不变的实在的影子。洞穴寓言阐明了这一点。
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) – Rejected Plato’s Forms; emphasised empirical observation and the four causes. His virtue ethics centres on character and the golden mean.
亚里士多德 – 否定柏拉图的理念；强调经验观察与四因说。他的德性伦理学以品格和中道为核心。
René Descartes (1596–1650) – 'Cogito, ergo sum' (I think, therefore I am). Founder of modern rationalism, advocated substance dualism and the method of systematic doubt.
笛卡尔 – “我思故我在”。现代理性主义奠基人，主张实体二元论和系统怀疑方法。
David Hume (1711–1776) – Scottish empiricist, sceptic. Argued against the design argument, causation as mere constant conjunction, and the idea of a permanent self.
休谟 – 苏格兰经验主义者、怀疑论者。反对设计论证，认为因果只是恒常联结，质疑持久的自我。
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) – Synthesised rationalism and empiricism. Deontological ethics founded on the categorical imperative. Argued that we can only know phenomena, not noumena (things‑in‑themselves).
康德 – 综合了理性主义和经验主义。基于绝对命令的义务论伦理学。主张我们只能认识现象，而无法认识物自身。
9. Common Exam Terms and Command Words | 常见考试术语与指令词
Analyse – break down an idea or argument into its parts and examine how they relate. Show structure and assumptions.
分析 – 将观点或论证分解成部分，并考察各部分如何关联。展示结构和前提假设。
Evaluate – make a reasoned judgment about the strengths and weaknesses of a theory or argument, supporting points with evidence and examples.
评价 – 对理论或论证的优缺点做出有理由的判断，用证据和例子支撑观点。
Discuss – explore the different aspects of a topic, considering alternative viewpoints. A balanced treatment is expected, often reaching a supported conclusion.
讨论 – 探讨一个话题的不同方面，考虑各种对立观点。期望平衡处理，通常要得出有支持的结论。
To what extent... – a prompt requiring you to weigh evidence and arguments for and against a claim, then judge how far you agree. Avoid a simple yes/no answer.
在多大程度上…… – 要求你权衡支持和反对某一主张的证据和论证，然后判断你同意的程度。避免简单的是或否回答。
Counterexample – a specific example that appears to contradict a universal claim or theory. Used to test and weaken philosophical positions.
反例 – 看起来与某一普遍主张或理论相矛盾的具体例子。用于检验和削弱哲学立场。
10. Study Tips for Long‑term Memorisation | 长期记忆学习技巧
Active recall – test yourself repeatedly. After reading a term, hide the definition and try to reconstruct it orally or in writing. This strengthens neural pathways more than re‑reading.
主动回忆 – 反复自测。读完一个术语后，遮住定义，尝试口头或书面重构。这比重读更能强化神经通路。
Spaced repetition – review terms at increasing intervals over days and weeks. Use flashcards, apps, or a simple schedule. The brain retains better when forgetting is about to occur.
间隔重复 – 在数天和数周内以渐增的时间间隔复习术语。使用抽认卡、应用程序或简单计划表。在大脑快要遗忘时复习保留效果最佳。
Dual coding – combine words with simple diagrams or mind maps. Draw a picture for 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) or sketch the cave allegory. Bilingual visual notes are especially powerful.
双重编码 – 将文字与简单图表或思维导图结合。为“白板”画一幅图，或描画洞穴寓言。双语视觉笔记尤其强大。
Example generation – create your own concrete examples for each term. For 'a priori', think of the statement 'All bachelors are unmarried'. Making it personal anchors the term in memory.
生成例子 – 为每个术语创造你自己的具体例子。对于“先验”，可以想“所有单身汉都未婚”这个陈述。个性化例子能将术语锚定在记忆中。
Teaching others – explain a term to a peer or imagine you are teaching a Year 9 student. The need to simplify solidifies your own understanding and exposes gaps.
教给别人 – 向同伴解释一个术语，或想象你在教一个 Year 9 的学生。简化的过程会巩固你自己的理解并暴露盲区。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
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