📚 Core Knowledge Review for Cambridge IGCSE Psychology | 剑桥IGCSE心理学核心知识点梳理
Welcome to the essential revision guide for Year 10 Cambridge IGCSE Psychology. This article distils the core topics, key studies, and fundamental concepts you need to master. Whether you are preparing for end-of-year exams or building a strong foundation for Paper 1 and Paper 2, we have summarised everything from memory models to psychological problems with clear explanations and bilingual support.
欢迎阅读Year 10剑桥IGCSE心理学核心复习指南。本文梳理了必须掌握的核心主题、关键研究和基本概念。无论你是在准备期末考试，还是为Paper 1和Paper 2夯实基础，我们都用清晰的双语对照为你总结了从记忆模型到心理问题的所有要点。
1. Research Methods in Psychology | 心理学研究方法
You need to understand how psychologists design studies and collect data. The main research methods include experiments, observations, self-reports, case studies, and correlations.
你需要了解心理学家如何设计研究并收集数据。主要研究方法包括实验、观察、自我报告、个案研究和相关性分析。
Experiments involve manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to observe effects on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous variables. They can be laboratory, field, or natural experiments.
实验涉及操纵自变量 (IV) 以观察对因变量 (DV) 的影响，同时控制额外变量。实验可以是实验室实验、现场实验或自然实验。
- Independent variable (IV) – the variable manipulated by the researcher. / 自变量 (IV) – 由研究者操纵的变量。
- Dependent variable (DV) – the variable measured. / 因变量 (DV) – 被测量的变量。
- Confounding variable – an uncontrolled factor that may affect results. / 混淆变量 – 可能影响结果而未受控制的因素。
Observations can be participant, non-participant, overt, or covert. Inter-observer reliability is critical to ensure consistency.
观察可以是参与式、非参与式、公开或隐蔽的。观察者间信度对于确保一致性至关重要。
Self-reports include questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires can use open or closed questions; interviews may be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
自我报告包括问卷和访谈。问卷可使用开放式或封闭式问题；访谈可以是结构化、半结构化或非结构化的。
Case studies provide in-depth information about an individual or small group, often using multiple methods, but findings are difficult to generalise.
个案研究提供关于个体或小群体的深入信息，常采用多种方法，但结果难以推广。
Correlation measures the relationship between two variables, described by a correlation coefficient (r) between -1 and +1. Remember: correlation does not imply causation.
相关法测量两个变量之间的关系，用 -1 到 +1 之间的相关系数 (r) 描述。务必记住：相关不代表因果关系。
Ethical guidelines protect participants. The key principles include informed consent, avoidance of deception unless necessary, debriefing, the right to withdraw, confidentiality, and protection from physical and psychological harm.
伦理准则保护参与者。主要原则包括知情同意、除非必要避免欺骗、事后解释、退出权利、保密，以及免受身心伤害。
| Key Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Standardisation | Keeping the procedure identical for all participants to reduce investigator effects. |
| Random sampling | Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. |
| Ecological validity | The extent to which findings can be generalised to real-life settings. |
标准化指对所有参与者保持相同程序以减少实验者效应；随机抽样指目标人群中每个成员被选中的机会均等；生态效度指研究发现可推广到真实生活场景的程度。
2. Memory: Models and Processes | 记忆：模型与过程
The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) describes three separate stores: sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information moves between stores through attention and rehearsal.
多储存库记忆模型（Atkinson & Shiffrin）描述了三个独立的储存库：感觉登记、短时记忆 (STM) 和长时记忆 (LTM)。信息通过注意和复述在各储存库间传递。
ks (Miller, 1956) and a duration of about 18-30 seconds without rehearsal. Encoding is mainly acoustic.
STM 的容量有限，为 7±2 个组块（Miller, 1956），若无复述，持续时间约 18-30 秒。编码以声学为主。
LTM has potentially unlimited capacity and unlimited duration. Encoding is mainly semantic, meaning by meaning.
LTM 的容量和持续时间可能是无限的。编码以语义为主，即按照意义编码。
Forgetting can be explained by interference theory: proactive interference (old memories disrupt new ones) and retroactive interference (new memories disrupt old ones).
遗忘可用干扰理论解释：前摄抑制（旧记忆干扰新记忆）和倒摄抑制（新记忆干扰旧记忆）。
Bartlett's reconstructive memory theory argues that memory is an active reconstruction, not a passive retrieval. His study 'War of the Ghosts' showed that participants rationalised and omitted unfamiliar details, fitting the story into their own schemas.
Bartlett 的重构记忆理论认为记忆是主动的重构，而非被动的提取。他的“幽灵之战”研究表明，参与者会合理化并省略不熟悉的细节，使故事符合自己的图式。
Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated the misinformation effect. Participants who heard the word 'smashed' estimated higher speeds than those who heard 'hit'. Leading questions can alter memory of an event.
Loftus 和 Palmer (1974) 证明了错误信息效应。听到“撞碎”一词的参与者比听到“碰了”的参与者估计的速度更高。诱导性问题可以改变对事件的记忆。
3. Perception: How We Interpret the World | 感知：我们如何解读世界
Sensation refers to the detection of physical stimuli by sense organs; perception is the brain's interpretation and organisation of that sensory input.
感觉指感觉器官探测物理刺激；感知是大脑对感觉输入的解释和组织。
Gibson's direct theory of perception argues that the environment provides enough information for us to perceive directly, without the need for prior knowledge. Key concepts include optic flow patterns and affordances.
Gibson 的直接知觉理论认为环境提供了足够的信息，我们无需先前知识便可直接感知。关键概念包括光流模式和功能可见性。
Gregory's constructivist theory proposes that perception is a construction based on prior knowledge, expectations, and hypotheses. Visual illusions support this because they show how the brain can be tricked.
Gregory 的建构理论提出知觉是基于已有知识、期望和假设的构建。视觉错觉支持这一理论，因为它们显示大脑如何被误导。
Depth cues help us perceive distance. Monocular cues include linear perspective, relative size, and texture gradient. Binocular cues rely on retinal disparity and convergence.
深度线索帮助我们感知距离。单眼线索包括线条透视、相对大小和纹理梯度。双眼线索依赖视网膜像差和辐合。
Visual illusions such as the Muller-Lyer illusion and the Ponzo illusion demonstrate that perception can be inconsistent with physical reality.
视觉错觉如缪勒-莱尔错觉和蓬佐错觉表明，感知可能与物理现实不一致。
Cultural differences in perception were investigated by Hudson (1960), who found that some African participants did not perceive depth in 2D pictures, suggesting experience and education influence perception.
知觉的文化差异由 Hudson (1960) 研究，发现一些非洲参与者无法在二维图片中感知深度，表明经验和教育影响知觉。
4. Sleep and Dreams | 睡眠与梦境
Sleep follows a cycle of NREM (non-rapid eye movement) and REM (rapid eye movement) stages. A typical cycle lasts about 90 minutes and repeats 4-5 times per night.
睡眠遵循 NREM（非快速眼动）和 REM（快速眼动）阶段的循环。一个典型周期约 90 分钟，每晚重复 4-5 次。
Stage 1 NREM is light sleep; Stage 2 involves sleep spindles; Stages 3 and 4 are deep sleep or slow-wave sleep, important for restoration. REM sleep is associated with dreaming and brain activity similar to wakefulness.
NREM 第一期是浅睡眠；第二期出现睡眠纺锤波；第三、四期为深度睡眠或慢波睡眠，对恢复很重要。REM 睡眠与做梦相关，脑活动与清醒时相似。
Freud's theory of dreams suggests that dreams are the 'royal road to the unconscious'. Manifest content is the storyline; latent content is the hidden, symbolic meaning.
弗洛伊德的梦境理论认为梦是“通往无意识的康庄大道”。显性内容是故事情节；隐性内容是其隐藏的象征意义。
The activation-synthesis theory (Hobson & McCarley) proposes that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural signals originating from the brainstem during REM sleep.
激活-合成理论（Hobson & McCarley）提出，做梦是因为大脑试图理解 REM 睡眠期间脑干产生的随机神经信号。
Sleep disorders include insomnia (persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep) and narcolepsy (sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep). Both can be influenced by stress and biological factors.
睡眠障碍包括失眠（持续难以入睡或保持睡眠）和发作性睡病（突然、不可控制的睡眠发作）。两者均可能受压力和生物因素影响。
5. Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience | 社会影响：从众与服从
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief due to real or imagined group pressure. Asch (1951) found that 75% of participants conformed at least once when confederates gave an obviously wrong answer in a line-judgement task.
从众是因真实或想象到的群体压力而改变行为或信念。Asch (1951) 发现，当实验同谋在线段判断任务中给出明显错误答案时，75% 的参与者至少从众过一次。
Factors affecting conformity include group size, unanimity of the majority, and task difficulty. Asch found conformity peaked with a majority of three confederates.
影响从众的因素包括群体大小、多数派的一致性和任务难度。Asch 发现当有三名同谋多数时从众达到最高。
Obedience involves following a direct order from an authority figure. Milgram (1963) demonstrated that 65% of participants administered what they believed were lethal shocks to a 'learner' when instructed by an authority figure in a laboratory coat.
服从涉及遵循权威人物直接发出的命令。Milgram (1963) 证明，当穿着实验室白大褂的权威人物指示时，65% 的参与者对“学习者”施加了他们认为是致命的电击。
Situational factors affecting obedience include proximity to the victim, proximity to the authority figure, and the prestige of the setting (e.g., Yale University vs a run-down office).
影响服从的情境因素包括与受害者的接近程度、与权威人物的接近程度，以及环境的声望（如耶鲁大学对比破旧的办公室）。
Deindividuation occurs when people lose their sense of individual identity and self-awareness in a crowd, often leading to disinhibited behaviour. Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment (1973) illustrated how roles and anonymity can lead to aggressive behaviour.
去个体化发生在人们在人群中失去个人身份感和自我意识时，常导致去抑制行为。Zimbardo 的斯坦福监狱实验 (1973) 展示了角色和匿名性如何导致攻击行为。
The bystander effect suggests that individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present. Diffusion of responsibility explains this reluctance.
旁观者效应表明，当其他人在场时，个体在紧急情况下提供帮助的可能性降低。责任扩散解释了这种不情愿。
6. Language, Thought and Communication | 语言与思维
The relationship between language and thought is debated. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language determines or influences the way we think; stronger versions propose linguistic determinism, while weaker versions suggest linguistic relativity.
语言与思维的关系存在争议。萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说认为语言决定或影响我们的思维方式；强版本提出语言决定论，弱版本提出语言相对论。
Piaget believed that thought precedes language: children develop cognitive structures first, and language is an expression of thought. Vygotsky argued that language and thought develop independently but merge around age two, with language later guiding thought.
Piaget 认为思维先于语言：儿童先发展认知结构，语言是思维的表达。Vygotsky 则认为语言与思维最初独立发展，但在两岁左右融合，之后语言引导思维。
Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, gestures, posture, and eye contact. Ekman identified six universal facial expressions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust.
非语言交流包括面部表情、手势、姿势和眼神接触。Ekman 确定了六种普遍的面部表情：快乐、悲伤、恐惧、愤怒、惊讶和厌恶。
Animal communication has been studied by Karl von Frisch, who discovered that honeybees communicate the distance and direction of food through 'waggle dances'. Aitchison outlined criteria for language, including displacement and semanticity, which animal communication generally lacks.
动物交流由 Karl von Frisch 研究，他发现蜜蜂通过“摇摆舞”传达食物的距离和方向。Aitchison 概述了语言的评判标准，包括移位性和语义性，动物交流通常缺乏这些特征。
7. The Brain and Neuropsychology | 大脑与神经心理学
Neurons are nerve cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals. A neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The myelin sheath insulates the axon and speeds up transmission.
神经元是传递电信号和化学信号的神经细胞。神经元由细胞体、树突和轴突组成。髓鞘包裹轴突以加速传递。
Synaptic transmission occurs when an action potential reaches the axon terminal, causing the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
突触传递发生在动作电位到达轴突末梢时，导致神经递质释放到突触间隙。这些神经递质与突触后神经元上的受体结合。
The brain is divided into four lobes: frontal (voluntary movement, planning, speech production), parietal (sensory processing), temporal (auditory processing, memory), and occipital (vision).
大脑分为四个叶：额叶（自主运动、计划、言语产生）、顶叶（感觉处理）、颞叶（听觉处理、记忆）和枕叶（视觉）。
Broca's area, in the left frontal lobe, is responsible for speech production. Damage causes Broca's aphasia, where speech is non-fluent but comprehension is relatively preserved. Wernicke's area, in the left temporal lobe, is crucial for language comprehension; damage leads to fluent but meaningless speech.
布罗卡区位于左额叶，负责言语产生；损伤导致布罗卡失语症，表现为不流利但理解相对保留。韦尼克区位于左颞叶，对语言理解至关重要；损伤导致流利但无意义的言语。
Methods for studying the brain include fMRI (measures blood flow to show active areas), EEG (records electrical activity via scalp electrodes), and post-mortem examination. The case of Phineas Gage (1848) provided early evidence that the frontal lobe is involved in personality and decision-making.
研究大脑的方法包括 fMRI（测量血流量以显示活跃区域）、EEG（通过头皮电极记录电活动）和尸体解剖。Phineas Gage 的案例（1848年）为额叶参与人格和决策提供了早期证据。
8. Psychological Problems | 心理问题
Psychological disorders are classified using diagnostic manuals such as the ICD (International Classification of Diseases) and the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
心理障碍使用诊断手册如 ICD（国际疾病分类）和 DSM（精神障碍诊断与统计手册）进行分类。
Unipolar depression is characterised by persistently low mood, loss of interest or pleasure (anhedonia), fatigue, changes in sleep and appetite, and in severe cases, suicidal thoughts.
单相抑郁症的特征是持续的情绪低落、失去兴趣或快感（快感缺失）、疲劳、睡眠和食欲改变，严重时出现自杀念头。
Biological explanations for depression include the serotonin hypothesis: low levels of serotonin are linked to depressed mood. Psychological explanations include Beck's negative triad (negative views of self, world, and future) and Ellis's ABC model, where irrational beliefs lead to emotional consequences.
抑郁症的生物学解释包括血清素假说：低水平的血清素与抑郁情绪有关。心理学解释包括Beck的消极三角（对自我、世界和未来的消极看法）和Ellis的ABC模型，其中非理性信念导致情绪后果。
Treatments for depression include cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), which aims to challenge negative thoughts, and antidepressant medication such as SSRIs, which increase serotonin availability.
抑郁症的治疗包括认知行为疗法 (CBT)，旨在挑战消极想法，以及抗抑郁药物如 SSRIs，它们增加血清素可利用性。
Addiction is defined as a compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences. Key features include tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, and loss of control.
成瘾被定义为不顾负面后果强迫性地从事奖赏性刺激。关键特征包括耐受性、戒断症状和失去控制。
Biological explanations of addiction focus on the dopamine reward pathway. Psychological theories highlight classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Treatment may involve CBT, counselling, and sometimes medical intervention.
成瘾的生物学解释集中于多巴胺奖励通路。心理学理论强调经典条件反射、操作性条件反射和社会学习。治疗可能涉及CBT、咨询，有时需要医学干预。
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