📚 Year 10 CIE Biology: Core Knowledge Review | Year 10 CIE 生物：核心知识点梳理
Year 10 IGCSE Biology under the CIE syllabus builds the foundation for understanding life processes, from molecular interactions to whole-organism systems. A solid grasp of these core topics is essential not only for examination success but also for appreciating the interconnectedness of biological concepts. This article compiles the most important knowledge points that every Year 10 student should master, presented in a clear and bilingual format to support revision and deep learning.
CIE 课程 Year 10 的 IGCSE 生物为学生理解生命过程——从分子间的相互作用到完整的生命系统——奠定基础。牢固掌握这些核心知识点不仅是考试成功的关键，也有助于理解各生物概念之间的内在联系。本文将整理 Year 10 学生必须掌握的最重要知识点，采用清晰的中英双语形式，助力复习与深度学习。
1. Cell Structure and Function | 细胞结构与功能
All living organisms are made of cells. Animal and plant cells share common organelles such as the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells also have a cell wall, a permanent vacuole and chloroplasts containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
所有生物体均由细胞构成。动物细胞和植物细胞具有共同的细胞器，如细胞核、细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体。植物细胞还拥有细胞壁、永久液泡以及含有叶绿素的叶绿体，用于进行光合作用。
The nucleus controls cell activities and contains genetic material (DNA). Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration, releasing energy. Ribosomes synthesise proteins. The cell membrane is selectively permeable, controlling the movement of substances in and out.
细胞核控制细胞活动并含有遗传物质（DNA）。线粒体是有氧呼吸的场所，释放能量。核糖体负责合成蛋白质。细胞膜具有选择通透性，控制物质的进出。
| Organelle (细胞器) | Function (功能) | Present in (存在) |
|---|---|---|
| Nucleus | Controls cell, stores DNA | Both animal and plant |
| Mitochondria | Aerobic respiration | Both |
| Ribosomes | Protein synthesis | Both |
| Chloroplast | Photosynthesis | Plant only |
| Cell wall | Provides support (cellulose) | Plant only |
real object. Specialised cells such as root hair cells and red blood cells show how structure relates to function.
理解细胞的尺度与特化同样重要。放大倍数 = 图像大小 / 实物大小。根毛细胞和红细胞等特化细胞展示了结构与功能相适应的关系。
2. Movement Across Cell Membranes | 物质跨膜运输
Substances move in and out of cells by diffusion, osmosis and active transport. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient; it is passive and requires no energy.
物质通过扩散、渗透和主动运输进出细胞。扩散是指粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域净移动，沿浓度梯度进行；该过程是被动的，不需要能量。
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution. In plant cells, water entering by osmosis creates turgor pressure, which supports the plant.
渗透是水分子通过部分透性膜的扩散，从稀溶液向较浓溶液移动。在植物细胞中，通过渗透进入的水产生膨胀压，从而支撑植物。
Active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient, from a lower to a higher concentration. It requires energy from respiration and protein carriers in the membrane. Examples include the uptake of mineral ions by root hairs and glucose absorption in the small intestine.
主动运输逆浓度梯度进行，将物质从低浓度向高浓度运输。该过程需要呼吸作用提供的能量和膜上的载体蛋白。例如根毛对矿质离子的吸收和小肠对葡萄糖的吸收。
3. Biological Molecules | 生物分子
The major biological molecules are carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Carbohydrates (starch and sugars) are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The basic unit is glucose, and many glucose units form starch (in plants) or glycogen (in animals). Reducing sugars can be tested with Benedict's solution, and starch with iodine.
主要的生物分子有碳水化合物、蛋白质和脂类。碳水化合物（淀粉和糖类）由碳、氢、氧组成。基本单元是葡萄糖，许多葡萄糖单元构成淀粉（植物中）或糖原（动物中）。还原糖可用本尼迪克特试剂检测，淀粉用碘液检测。
Proteins are made of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. They have diverse functions: enzymes, structural components, hormones, antibodies. The Biuret test turns purple in the presence of protein. Lipids (fats and oils) consist of glycerol and fatty acids; they provide insulation and energy storage. The ethanol emulsion test gives a cloudy white layer.
蛋白质由氨基酸通过肽键连接而成，具有多种功能：酶、结构组分、激素、抗体等。双缩脲试剂遇蛋白质呈紫色。脂类由甘油和脂肪酸组成，具有隔热和能量储存功能。乙醇乳液实验会产生白色乳浊层。
DNA is also a key biological molecule, a double helix carrying genetic information. The 'lock and key' model of enzyme action is introduced here, leading to the next section.
DNA 也是一种重要的生物分子，为双螺旋结构，携带遗传信息。酶作用的“锁钥模型”也在此引入，衔接下一节。
4. Enzymes | 酶
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being used up. They are proteins with an active site specific to a substrate. The lock-and-key model states that the substrate fits into the active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex, lowering activation energy.
酶是生物催化剂，能加快反应速率而本身不被消耗。它们是蛋白质，具有与底物特异性结合的活性位点。锁钥模型认为底物契合活性位点，形成酶-底物复合物，从而降低活化能。
Factors affecting enzyme activity include temperature and pH. At low temperatures, activity is reduced; as temperature rises, activity increases until an optimum (often around 37 °C in humans). Beyond this, the enzyme denatures as the active site loses shape. Similarly, each enzyme has an optimum pH; extreme pH denatures it.
影响酶活性的因素包括温度和 pH。低温时活性降低，随温度升高活性增加，直至最适温度（人体中通常约 37 °C）。超过最适温度后酶变性，活性位点形状改变。同样，每种酶有其最适 pH，极端 pH 会使酶变性。
Enzymes are used in digestion, for example amylase breaks down starch into maltose, protease breaks down proteins, and lipase digests lipids. They are also essential in photosynthesis and respiration.
酶在消化中发挥作用，例如淀粉酶将淀粉分解为麦芽糖，蛋白酶分解蛋白质，脂肪酶消化脂类。它们在光合作用和呼吸作用中也必不可少。
5. Photosynthesis | 光合作用
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants manufacture glucose using light energy, carbon dioxide and water. The equation is:
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Chlorophyll in chloroplasts traps light energy and uses it to convert CO₂ and H₂O into glucose and oxygen. The process occurs in two main stages: light-dependent reactions (in thylakoid membranes) and the Calvin cycle (in the stroma).
光合作用是绿色植物利用光能、二氧化碳和水制造葡萄糖的过程。方程式为：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂。叶绿体中的叶绿素捕捉光能，将 CO₂ 和 H₂O 转化为葡萄糖和氧气。该过程分为两个主要阶段：光反应（在类囊体膜上）和卡尔文循环（在基质中）。
Limiting factors include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. The glucose produced is used for respiration, converted into starch for storage, or used to synthesise cellulose, amino acids and lipids. Oxygen is released as a by-product.
限制因素包括光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。生成的葡萄糖可用于呼吸作用、转化为淀粉储存，或用于合成纤维素、氨基酸和脂类。氧气作为副产品释放。
6. Transport in Plants | 植物运输
Plants have two transport systems: xylem and phloem. Xylem vessels carry water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves. They are dead cells with lignified walls, forming continuous tubes. Water movement is driven by transpiration pull, cohesion and adhesion.
植物有两种运输系统：木质部和韧皮部。木质部导管将水和溶解的矿物质从根部输送到叶片。它们是死细胞，细胞壁木质化，形成连续的空管。水分上升由蒸腾拉力、内聚力和附着力驱动。
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from leaves, mainly through stomata. It is affected by temperature, humidity, wind and light intensity. Stomata, regulated by guard cells, open to allow gas exchange for photosynthesis but also cause water loss.
蒸腾作用是叶片以水蒸气形式散失水分，主要通过气孔进行。它受温度、湿度、风速和光照强度的影响。气孔由保卫细胞调控，开启以进行光合作用的气体交换，但也导致水分流失。
Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids (assimilates) from sources (e.g. leaves) to sinks (e.g. roots, fruits). This translocation is an active process requiring energy.
韧皮部运输蔗糖和氨基酸（同化物）从“源”（如叶片）到“库”（如根部、果实）。这种转运是主动过程，需要能量。
7. Human Digestive System | 人体消化系统
The digestive system breaks down large, insoluble food molecules into small, soluble ones for absorption. Digestion begins in the mouth (amylase in saliva breaks down starch), continues in the stomach (protease pepsin, hydrochloric acid) and the small intestine (enzymes from pancreas and intestinal wall).
消化系统将大的、不溶性食物分子分解为小的、可溶性分子以便吸收。消化从口腔开始（唾液淀粉酶分解淀粉），在胃（胃蛋白酶、盐酸）和小肠（胰腺和肠壁分泌的酶）中继续。
The small intestine is the main site of absorption. Villi and microvilli increase surface area; a rich blood network carries absorbed glucose and amino acids away. Lipids are absorbed as fatty acids and glycerol into lymph vessels (lacteals). Water is absorbed mainly in the large intestine.
小肠是主要的吸收场所。绒毛和微绒毛增大了表面积；丰富的血管网络将吸收的葡萄糖和氨基酸运走。脂类以脂肪酸和甘油的形式被吸收进入淋巴管（乳糜管）。水分主要在结肠吸收。
Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fats and neutralises acidic chyme, creating optimal pH for pancreatic enzymes.
胆汁由肝脏生成、胆囊储存，能乳化脂肪并中和酸性食糜，为胰酶创造最适 pH 环境。
8. The Circulatory System | 循环系统
Mammals have a double circulatory system: pulmonary circulation to the lungs and systemic circulation to the body. The heart is a four-chambered pump. The right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs; the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body. Key blood vessels: arteries (carry blood away, thick muscular walls), veins (return blood, have valves), capillaries (site of exchange, one cell thick).
哺乳动物具有双循环系统：肺循环通往肺部，体循环通往全身。心脏是一个四腔泵。右侧将缺氧血泵至肺，左侧将富氧血泵至全身。主要血管：动脉（将血液送离心脏，管壁厚有肌肉层）、静脉（将血液送回心脏，有瓣膜）、毛细血管（物质交换场所，单层细胞厚）。
Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, which binds oxygen. White blood cells defend against pathogens; platelets help clotting.
血液由血浆、红细胞、白细胞和血小板组成。红细胞含有血红蛋白，能结合氧气。白细胞抵御病原体；血小板参与凝血。
The heart rate can be influenced by adrenaline. Coronary heart disease can be caused by poor diet, smoking and lack of exercise, leading to plaque build-up in arteries.
心率可受肾上腺素影响。冠心病可由不良饮食、吸烟和缺乏运动导致，造成动脉斑块积聚。
9. Respiration and Gas Exchange | 呼吸与气体交换
ioxide + water (+ energy). It occurs in mitochondria. Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen, producing lactic acid in animals and ethanol + CO₂ in yeast (fermentation).
有氧呼吸利用氧气从葡萄糖中释放能量。文字方程式：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水（+ 能量）。发生在线粒体中。无氧呼吸在无氧条件下进行，动物中产生乳酸，酵母中产生乙醇和 CO₂（发酵）。
In humans, gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. Air enters through the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles. Alveoli are surrounded by capillaries; oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out. Features aiding gas exchange: large surface area, thin walls, moist surface, rich blood supply.
人类的气体交换发生在肺泡中。空气经气管、支气管、细支气管进入。肺泡被毛细血管包围；氧气扩散入血，二氧化碳扩散出去。有助于气体交换的特点：表面积大、壁薄、湿润表面、丰富的血液供应。
Breathing movements are controlled by the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, the rib cage moves up and out, increasing thoracic volume and decreasing pressure.
呼吸运动由膈肌和肋间肌控制。吸气时，膈肌收缩变平，肋骨上抬外展，胸腔容积增大、压力降低。
10. Coordination and Response | 协调与反应
The nervous system uses electrical impulses carried by neurones. A reflex arc involves a receptor, sensory neurone, relay neurone (in spinal cord), motor neurone and effector. Synapses between neurones use chemical neurotransmitters to transmit signals.
神经系统利用神经元传导的电冲动。反射弧包括感受器、感觉神经元、联络神经元（在脊髓）、运动神经元和效应器。神经元之间的突触利用化学神经递质传递信号。
The endocrine system uses hormones, chemical messengers secreted into the blood. Adrenaline is released in 'fight or flight' situations, raising heart rate and diverting blood to muscles. Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels (a negative feedback system).
内分泌系统使用激素，即分泌到血液中的化学信使。肾上腺素在“战斗或逃跑”时释放，使心率加快、血液流向肌肉。胰岛素和胰高血糖素通过负反馈调节血糖水平。
Tropisms are plant growth responses to stimuli. Phototropism (response to light) is controlled by auxin, which accumulates on the shaded side, causing cell elongation. Gravitropism (response to gravity) ensures roots grow downwards.
向性运动是植物对刺激的生长反应。向光性由生长素控制，它在背光侧积累，引起细胞伸长。向地性确保根向下生长。
11. Reproduction in Humans | 人类生殖
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes. The male reproductive system produces sperm in the testes; sperm leaves via the sperm duct, mixed with fluids from glands to form semen. The female system produces eggs in the ovaries; fertilisation occurs in the oviduct, and the embryo implants in the uterus.
有性生殖涉及雌雄配子的融合。男性生殖系统在睾丸产生精子，精子经输精管排出，与腺体分泌的液体混合形成精液。女性系统在卵巢产生卵子，受精发生在输卵管，胚胎着床于子宫。
The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones: oestrogen (repairs uterus lining) and progesterone (maintains it). After ovulation, if fertilisation occurs, the placenta forms to exchange nutrients, oxygen and wastes between mother and foetus, while separating the two blood supplies.
月经周期受激素调控：雌激素（修复子宫内膜）和孕酮（维持内膜）。排卵后若受精，胎盘形成，在母体与胎儿之间交换营养、氧气和废物，同时将双方血液隔开。
Birth control methods include barrier, hormonal, intrauterine devices and surgical sterilisation. Sexually transmitted infections such as HIV can be reduced by using condoms.
避孕方法包括屏障法、激素法、宫内节育器和手术绝育。性传播感染如 HIV 可通过使用避孕套降低风险。
12. Inheritance and Genetics | 遗传与基因
DNA is a double helix containing four bases: A, T, C, G. A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein. Chromosomes are long, coiled DNA molecules containing many genes. In body cells, chromosomes exist in pairs (diploid); gametes have half the number (haploid).
DNA 是双螺旋，包含四种碱基：A、T、C、G。基因是编码特定蛋白质的一段 DNA。染色体是长长的螺旋 DNA 分子，含有许多基因。体细胞中染色体成对存在（二倍体）；配子只有一半（单倍体）。
Alleles are different versions of a gene. Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles. A monohybrid cross can be illustrated using a Punnett square. Phenotype is the expressed trait; genotype is the genetic makeup. Homozygous means identical alleles (e.g., BB or bb), heterozygous means different alleles (Bb).
等位基因是基因的不同形式。显性等位基因掩盖隐性等位基因。可用庞尼特方格说明单基因杂交。表型是表达出的性状；基因型是遗传组成。纯合指等位基因相同（如 BB 或 bb），杂合指等位基因不同（Bb）。
Sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes: females (XX), males (XY). Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence, potentially leading to variation. Natural selection acts on heritable variation to drive evolution.
性别由 X 和 Y 染色体决定：女性（XX），男性（XY）。突变是 DNA 序列的改变，可能导致变异。自然选择作用于可遗传的变异，推动进化。
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