📚 Year 10 CIE Physics: Key Concepts Review | Year 10 CIE 物理：核心知识点梳理
Year 10 is a crucial stage for CIE IGCSE Physics students to consolidate key concepts across mechanics, thermal physics, waves, electricity, magnetism, and nuclear physics. This revision guide distills the core ideas, essential formulas, and typical exam pitfalls, helping you build a rock-solid foundation for further study.
十年级是CIE IGCSE物理学生巩固力学、热学、波动、电学、磁学和核物理核心概念的关键阶段。本复习指南提炼了核心思想、重要公式和常见考试误区，帮助你打下坚实的基础。
1. Motion | 运动
a given direction, hence a vector. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: a = (v – u) / t, where u is initial velocity, v is final velocity. The area under a velocity–time graph gives displacement, while the gradient gives acceleration.
速率是标量，定义为单位时间内的距离：v = s / t。速度是有方向的速率，因此是矢量。加速度是速度的变化率：a = (v – u) / t，其中 u 是初速度，v 是末速度。速度-时间图下的面积给出位移，斜率给出加速度。
On a distance–time graph, a straight sloping line represents constant speed; a horizontal line means the object is stationary. For a velocity–time graph, the slope equals acceleration, a horizontal line indicates constant velocity, and the area under the graph represents the distance travelled.
在距离-时间图中，倾斜直线表示匀速；水平线代表物体静止。在速度-时间图中，斜率等于加速度，水平线表示匀速，图线下面积表示所走距离。
When acceleration is constant, three equations of motion apply:
v = u + a t
s = u t + ½ a t²
v² = u² + 2 a s
describe free fall under gravity, where a = g ≈ 9.8 m/s², and air resistance is neglected.
加速度恒定时，三个运动方程适用：v = u + a t，s = u t + ½ a t²，v² = u² + 2 a s。这些方程可以描述忽略空气阻力的自由落体，此时 a = g ≈ 9.8 m/s²。
2. Forces, Moments and Newton’s Laws | 力、力矩与牛顿定律
that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force. Newton’s second law: F = m a. Weight is the gravitational force on a mass: W = m g.
力可以改变物体的形状、速度或方向。合力是所有作用力的矢量和。牛顿第一定律指出，物体保持静止或匀速直线运动，除非受到净外力作用。牛顿第二定律：F = m a。重量是质量所受的重力：W = m g。
When an object falls through a fluid, air resistance increases with speed until it balances the weight. The object then falls at constant terminal velocity. A sky-diver experiences this effect: initially accelerating, then reaching terminal velocity before opening the parachute.
物体在流体中下落时，空气阻力随速度增大直至与重量平衡，物体以恒定的终极速度下落。跳伞者经历这一效应：先加速，然后在打开降落伞前达到终极速度。
he pivot. For an object in rotational equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments equals the sum of anticlockwise moments. This principle is used in levers and beam balances.
力对支点的力矩等于力 × 力到支点的垂直距离。当物体处于转动平衡时，顺时针力矩总和等于逆时针力矩总和。这一原理用于杠杆和天平。
3. Momentum and Energy | 动量与能量
F t = Δp, equal to the change in momentum. In car safety, crumple zones increase the impact time, reducing the force on occupants.
动量 p = m v 是矢量，所有碰撞和爆炸中若没有外合力则动量守恒。力的冲量 F t = Δp，等于动量的变化。在汽车安全中，溃缩区增加碰撞时间，减小乘员受力。
sformed but not created or destroyed. Work done W = F d when a force moves an object in its direction; power P = W / t is the rate of doing work.
动能 Eₖ = ½ m v² 和重力势能 Eₚ = m g h 是机械能的形式。能量守恒：能量可以传递或转化，但不能创造或消失。当力使物体沿力方向移动时，做功 W = F d；功率 P = W / t 是做功的速率。
nce, the loss in GPE equals the gain in kinetic energy: m g h = ½ m v², so final speed v = √2 g h. Efficiency = useful output energy / total input energy.
无空气阻力时，静止物体下落，重力势能减少等于动能增加：m g h = ½ m v²，因此末速度 v = √2 g h。效率 = 有用输出能量 / 总输入能量。
4. Pressure and States of Matter | 压强与物态
with depth: p = ρ g h, where ρ is the liquid density and h is depth below the surface. The pressure in a liquid acts equally in all directions.
压强 p = F / A，单位帕斯卡 (Pa)。锋利的刀容易切割，因为小面积产生大压强。液体的压强随深度增加：p = ρ g h，其中 ρ 是液体密度，h 是距离液面的深度。液体压强向各个方向等大传递。
Solids have fixed shape and volume; liquids have fixed volume but take the shape of their container; gases have no fixed shape or volume. Brownian motion of smoke particles in air provides evidence for the random motion of gas molecules. Gas pressure results from molecular collisions with container walls.
固体有固定的形状和体积；液体有固定体积但形状随容器而变；气体没有固定的形状和体积。空气中烟雾粒子的布朗运动为气体分子的无规则运动提供了证据。气体压强源于分子对容器壁的碰撞。
a gas is compressed, the particles hit the walls more frequently, increasing the pressure.
定质量气体在温度不变时，压强与体积成反比（玻意耳定律）：p₁ V₁ = p₂ V₂。气体被压缩时，粒子更频繁地碰撞器壁，压强增大。
5. Thermal Properties: Heat Transfer, Specific Heat Capacity and Latent Heat | 热学性质：热传递、比热容与潜热
Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction occurs mainly in solids through lattice vibrations and free electrons; metals are good conductors. Convection occurs in fluids due to density changes; hot fluid rises, cool fluid sinks. Infrared radiation can travel through a vacuum and is emitted by all objects above 0 K.
热可以通过传导、对流和辐射传递。传导主要发生在固体中，通过晶格振动和自由电子进行；金属是良导体。对流因密度变化在流体中发生，热流体上升、冷流体下沉。红外辐射能在真空中传播，所有高于 0 K 的物体都能发出红外辐射。
erials with high specific heat capacity, such as water, heat up and cool down slowly, making them useful for thermal storage.
比热容 c 是使 1 kg 物质温度升高 1 °C (或 1 K) 所需的能量。传递的热能 E = m c Δθ。比热容高的材料（如水）升温慢、降温也慢，因此可用于储热。
During a change of state, the temperature remains constant while the substance absorbs or releases latent heat. Specific latent heat of fusion Lf = E / m (solid ⇌ liquid) and specific latent heat of vaporisation Lv = E / m (liquid ⇌ plied goes into breaking or forming intermolecular bonds, not into raising kinetic energy.
状态变化期间，温度保持不变，物质吸收或释放潜热。熔化比潜热 Lf = E / m (固⇌液)，汽化比潜热 Lv = E / m (液⇌气)。提供的能量用于打破或形成分子间作用力，而不是增加动能。
6. Wave Properties | 波的性质
g., light, water ripples). In a longitudinal wave, oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer (e.g., sound). The wave equation links speed v, frequency f and wavelength λ: v = f λ.
波传递能量而不传递物质。横波中，振动方向与能量传递方向垂直（如光、水波）。纵波中，振动方向与能量传递方向平行（如声波）。波速方程关联波速 v、频率 f 和波长 λ：v = f λ。
eflection. Refraction is the change in direction when waves cross a boundary where speed changes. Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles or through gaps; it is most noticeable when the gap size is comparable to the wavelength.
所有波都能反射、折射和衍射。反射遵循入射角等于反射角的规律。折射是波越过边界速度改变时方向的变化。衍射是波绕过障碍或通过缝隙时扩展的现象；当缝隙大小与波长相近时衍射最显著。
Sound waves are longitudinal and require a medium. The speed of sound in air is about 330 m/s. An echo is a reflected sound wave; sonar uses the time delay to measure distances. The frequency of a sound determines its pitch; amplitude determines its loudness.
声波是纵波，需要介质传播。空气中声速约 330 m/s。回声是反射的声波；声呐利用时间延迟测量距离。声音的频率决定音调，振幅决定响
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