📚 Year 10 SQA Chemistry: Summer Prep and Bridging Course | SQA 化学：暑期预习与衔接课程
Welcome to your SQA Chemistry summer preparation and bridging course! This programme is designed to strengthen your fundamental chemistry knowledge and introduce the key skills needed for the National 5 course. By exploring core topics such as atomic structure, bonding, equations and calculations, you will build a strong platform for success in the year ahead.
欢迎参加 SQA 化学暑期预习与衔接课程！该课程旨在强化你的化学基础知识，并介绍国家5级课程所需的关键技能。通过探索原子结构、化学键、方程式和计算等核心主题，你将为新一年的成功打下坚实基础。
1. The SQA Chemistry Journey: What to Expect | SQA 化学之旅：预期内容
The National 5 Chemistry course is divided into three units: 'Chemical Changes and Structure', 'Nature's Chemistry' and 'Chemistry in Society'. The final award is based on an externally assessed question paper and an internal assignment where you research a topical chemistry issue. Understanding the course structure early helps you plan your revision and practical work effectively.
国家5级化学课程分为三个单元：“化学变化与结构”、“自然化学”和“社会中的化学”。最终成绩由外部评估的问答题试卷和一项内部作业（研究一个化学课题）共同决定。尽早了解课程结构有助于你有效规划复习和实验工作。
During your summer prep, focus on mastering the language of chemistry – symbols, formulae and equations – because these are the tools that unlock everything from bonding to calculations. You will also need to develop solid mathematical skills, as National 5 includes mole calculations and percentage yields.
在暑期预习期间，重点掌握化学的语言——符号、化学式和方程式——因为这些是理解化学键到计算等一切内容的钥匙。你还需要培养扎实的数学技能，因为国家5级包含摩尔计算和产率百分比。
2. Building a Solid Foundation: States of Matter and Particles | 建立坚实基础：物质状态与粒子
All matter is made of tiny particles. The particle model explains the three common states: solid, liquid and gas. In solids, particles are arranged in a fixed, regular pattern and vibrate in place. In liquids, particles are still close but can slide past each other. In gases, particles move rapidly and are far apart.
所有物质都由微小粒子组成。粒子模型解释了三种常见状态：固态、液态和气态。在固体中，粒子排列成固定规则的结构并在原位振动；液体中粒子仍紧密但可相互滑动；气体中粒子快速运动且相距很远。
Changes of state, such as melting and boiling, involve energy being taken in or given out. When a substance melts, particles gain enough energy to overcome some of the forces holding them in a fixed arrangement. No new chemical is formed – these are physical changes.
状态变化例如熔化和沸腾，涉及能量的吸收或释放。物质熔化时，粒子获得足够能量克服将其固定在规则排列中的部分作用力。没有新化学物质生成——这些都是物理变化。
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Evidence for particle theory includes the fact that small particles like ammonia diffuse faster than larger particles in gases.
扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的运动。粒子理论的证据包括：氨气等小粒子在气体中的扩散速度比大粒子更快。
3. Atomic Structure: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons | 原子结构：质子、中子与电子
e charge (+1), neutrons are neutral (0) and electrons carry a negative charge (-1). The relative masses are: proton = 1, neutron = 1, electron ≈ 1/1840 (negligible).
原子由包含质子和中子的中心原子核以及绕核在能级上运动的电子组成。质子带一个正电荷（+1），中子不带电（0），电子带一个负电荷（-1）。它们的相对质量约为：质子=1，中子=1，电子约等于1/1840（可忽略不计）。
The following table summarises the key particles:
下表总结了主要粒子：
| Particle | Charge | Relative mass |
| Proton | +1 | 1 |
| Neutron | 0 | 1 |
| Electron | -1 | Negligible |
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom, which determines the element. The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. For example, chlorine has two main isotopes: ³⁵Cl and ³⁷Cl.
原子序数（Z）是原子中的质子数，它决定了元素种类。质量数（A）是质子数与中子数之和。同位素是指质子数相同但中子数不同的同种元素的原子。例如，氯有两种主要同位素：³⁵Cl 和 ³⁷Cl。
When doing calculations, the relative atomic mass (RAM) shown on the periodic table is the weighted average of all the naturally occurring isotopes. You will use this value in mole calculations later.
在进行计算时，周期表上显示的相对原子质量是所有天然同位素的加权平均值。之后你将使用该值进行摩尔计算。
4. Electron Arrangement and the Periodic Table | 电子排布与元素周期表
Electrons occupy specific energy levels (or shells) around the nucleus. The first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, the second shell holds up to 8 and the third shell typically holds 8 as a stable arrangement for the first 20 elements. For instance, sodium (Na) has 11 electrons: 2, 8, 1.
电子占据原子核周围特定的能级（或电子层）。第一层最多可容纳2个电子，第二层最多8个，前20号元素中第三层通常容纳8个电子即达到稳定排布。例如钠（Na）有11个电子：2, 8, 1。
The periodic table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number. Elements in the same group (vertical column) have the same number of electrons in their outer shell, which gives them similar chemical properties. Group 1 elements (alkali metals) have one outer electron; Group 7 elements (halogens) have seven outer electrons; and Group 0 (noble gases) have full outer shells.
元素周期表按原子序数递增的顺序排列。同一族（纵列）元素具有相同的外层电子数，这使得它们具有相似的化学性质。第1族元素（碱金属）有一个外层电子；第7族元素（卤素）有七个外层电子；第0族（稀有气体）具有全满的外层电子。
At National 5 you must be able to write electron arrangements for the first 20 elements and link them to the position in the periodic table. For example, calcium (atomic number 20) has an electron arrangement of 2, 8, 8, 2 – hence it is in period 4 (4 shells) and group 2 (2 outer electrons).
在国家5级中，你需要能够写出前20号元素的电子排布，并将其与周期表中的位置联系起来。例如钙（原子序数20）的电子排布为2, 8, 8, 2，所以它位于第4周期（4个电子层）和第2族（2个外层电子）。
5. Chemical Bonds and Formulae | 化学键与化学式
Atoms bond together to achieve stable electron arrangements. The three main types of bonding are: ionic, covalent and metallic. Ionic bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal, where electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal, forming positive and negative ions that attract each other. For example, in sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium loses one electron to form Na⁺ and chlorine gains one to form Cl⁻.
原子通过结合来达到稳定的电子排布。三种主要化学键类型是：离子键、共价键和金属键。离子键发生在金属与非金属之间，电子从金属转移到非金属，形成相互吸引的正负离子。例如在氯化钠（NaCl）中，钠失去一个电子形成 Na⁺，氯得到一个电子形成 Cl⁻。
Covalent bonding happens between non-metal atoms, where electrons are shared. Single, double and triple bonds can form, depending on the number of shared electron pairs. A molecule of water (H₂O) has two single covalent bonds, while carbon dioxide (CO₂) has two double bonds.
共价键发生在非金属原子之间，电子被共享。依据共享电子对的数量，可形成单键、双键或三键。水分子（H₂O）有两个单共价键，而二氧化碳（CO₂）有两个双键。
Metallic bonding involves a lattice of positive metal ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons. This explains why metals conduct electricity and are malleable.
金属键涉及正金属离子晶格被离域电子海包围。这解释了金属为何能导电并具有延展性。
Writing correct chemical formulae requires knowing the valency (combining power) of elements or groups. For example, magnesium (Mg²⁺) combines with oxygen (O²⁻) in a 1:1 ratio to give MgO. With hydroxide (OH⁻), you need two hydroxide ions for each Mg²⁺, so the formula is Mg(OH)₂.
书写正确的化学式需要知道元素或原子团的化合价（化合能力）。例如镁（Mg²⁺）与氧（O²⁻）按1:1结合为 MgO。对于氢氧根（OH⁻），每个 Mg²⁺ 需要两个 OH⁻，因此化学式为 Mg(OH)₂。
6. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations | 书写与配平化学方程式
A chemical equation uses symbols and formulae to describe a reaction. The law of conservation of mass states that atoms cannot be created or destroyed, so equations must be balanced. This means the number of atoms of each element must be the same on both sides of the arrow.
化学方程式使用符号和化学式来描述反应。质量守恒定律指出原子不能被创造或毁灭，因此方程式必须配平。这意味着每种元素的原子数目在箭头两侧必须相等。
Start by writing the correct formulae for all reactants and products, then adjust the coefficients (large numbers in front) – never change the subscripts in a formula. For example, the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water:
首先写出所有反应物和生成物的正确化学式，然后调整系数（化学式前的大数字）——切勿改变化学式中的下标。例如氢气和氧气反应生成水：
2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
state symbols gives a complete picture: CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l).
应当尽可能标注状态符号：(s) 固体，(l) 液体，(g) 气体，(aq) 水溶液（溶于水）。配平且附带状态符号的方程式提供完整信息：CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l)。
Ionic equations, studied later, show only the species that actually change. But first, master full balanced equations.
后续学习的离子方程式只展示实际发生变化的物种。但首先，请熟练掌握完整配平方程式的书写。
7. The Mole Concept and Calculating Masses | 摩尔概念与质量计算
bstance. One mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 10²³ representative particles (Avogadro' e the relative atomic mass (RAM); for compounds, sum the RAMs of all atoms in the formula.
摩尔是物质的量的单位。一摩尔任何物质包含 6.02 × 10²³ 个基本单元（阿伏伽德罗常数）。一摩尔的质量等于以克为单位的相对化学式量（RFM）。对于元素，使用相对原子质量（RAM）；对于化合物，则加总化学式中所有原子的 RAM。
The key relationship is:
关键关系式为：
n = m / M
m = mass in grams, M = molar mass (g mol⁻¹). You can rearrange to m = n × M or M = m / n.
其中 n = 摩尔数，m = 质量（克），M = 摩尔质量（g mol⁻¹）。可变形为 m = n × M 或 M = m / n。
22 g. You will also use concentrations: C = n / V (mol l⁻¹), where V is volume in litres.
例如，计算 0.5 摩尔 CO₂ 的质量：M = 12 + (2 × 16) = 44 g mol⁻¹，因此 m = 0.5 × 44 = 22 g。你还会用到浓度：C = n / V（mol l⁻¹），其中 V 是体积（升）。
Practising mole calculations over the summer builds confidence for stoichiometry and titration problems.
暑期练习摩尔计算能增强解决化学计量和滴定问题的信心。
8. Acids, Bases and pH | 酸、碱与 pH
Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water. Common laboratory acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃). Bases are substances that accept H⁺ or produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻). Soluble bases are called alkalis; examples are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH).
酸是溶于水时释放氢离子（H⁺）的物质。实验室常见的酸包括盐酸（HCl）、硫酸（H₂SO₄）和硝酸（HNO₃）。碱是接受 H⁺ 或产生氢氧根离子（OH⁻）的物质。可溶性碱被称为alkali，如氢氧化钠（NaOH）和氢氧化钾（KOH）。
Neutralisation occurs when an acid reacts with a base to produce a salt and water. The general equation is:
酸与碱发生中和反应，生成盐和水。通式为：
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
etal oxides and carbonates also neutralise acids, producing salt, water and, in the case of carbonates, carbon dioxide.
例如：HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O。金属氧化物和碳酸盐也能中和酸，生成盐和水，若是碳酸盐还会产生二氧化碳。
The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. A pH less than 7 is acidic, 7 is neutral and above 7 is alkaline. pH is a measure of the concentration of H⁺ ions. You should know how to use universal indicator and pH meters.
pH 值范围从 0 到 14。pH 值低于 7 为酸性，7 为中性，高于 7 为碱性。pH 值衡量的是 H⁺ 离子浓度。你需要知道如何使用通用指示剂和 pH 计。
9. Rates of Reaction and Energy Changes | 反应速率与能量变化
The rate of a chemical reaction can be changed by altering several factors: temperature, concentration (or pressure for gases), particle size (surface area) and the presence of a catalyst. Increasing temperature gives particles more kinetic energy, leading to more frequent and more energetic collisions.
化学反应的速率可通过改变几个因素来调节：温度、浓度（或气体压强）、颗粒大小（表面积）以及催化剂的使用。升高温度使粒子动能增加，导致碰撞更频繁且更剧烈。
Lowering particle size increases surface area, exposing more particles to react. A catalyst speeds up a reaction without being used up by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy. All these factors are explained by collision theory.
减小颗粒尺寸可增大表面积，使更多粒子得以暴露参与反应。催化剂通过提供较低活化能的替代途径来加快反应，而自身不被消耗。这些因素均可由碰撞理论解释。
Reactions are also classified as exothermic (releasing energy, usually as heat) or endothermic (absorbing energy). Combustion of fuels is exothermic; photosynthesis is endothermic. Energy changes can be shown on reaction pathway diagrams.
反应也分为放热反应（释放能量，通常为热能）和吸热反应（吸收能量）。燃料燃烧是放热的；光合作用是吸热的。能量变化可用反应路径图表示。
At National 5, you will carry out experiments measuring rate by collecting gas volume or monitoring mass change. Understanding these principles now will make practical work much smoother.
在国家5级中，你将通过收集气体体积或监测质量变化来测定速率的实验。现在理解这些原理将使实验工作更加顺畅。
10. Practical Skills and Lab Safety | 实验技能与实验室安全
Chemistry is a practical subject, and your National 5 assignment and classwork depend heavily on good lab skills. Key techniques include using a Bunsen burner safely, measuring volumes with measuring cylinders and burettes, filtering, evaporating and heating substances in test tubes.
化学是一门实验学科，你的国家5级作业和课堂表现很大程度上依赖于良好的实验技能。关键技术包括安全使用本生灯、用量筒和滴定管测量体积、过滤、蒸发以及在试管中加热物质。
You must always wear safety goggles and follow the safety rules. Recognise hazard symbols such as corrosive, flammable, toxic and oxidising. When diluting concentrated acid, always add acid to water slowly – never the reverse – to avoid dangerous splashing.
你必须始终佩戴护目镜并遵守安全规则。识别腐蚀性、易燃、有毒和氧化性等危险标志。稀释浓酸时，必须将酸缓慢加入水中——切勿反向操作——以避免危险飞溅。
Accurate recording and display of data are vital. Use tables with headings and units, and present results in graphs with labelled axes and a line of best fit. These skills are often assessed in the assignment, so practising over summer gives you a head start.
准确记录和呈现数据至关重要。表格应有表头和单位，图表需标注坐标轴并绘制最佳拟合线。这些技能在作业考核中经常出现，因此暑期练习能让你快人一步。
11. Study Strategies for Chemistry Success | 化学学习成功策略
Effective study habits are essential. Create a vocabulary list of chemistry terms (e.g. element, compound, molecule, ion) and test yourself regularly. Use flashcards for formulae, symbols, and reactivity series. Drawing mind maps linking topics like atomic structure ⇾ bonding ⇾ properties helps you see the bigger picture.
有效的学习习惯不可或缺。制作化学术语词汇表（如元素、化合物、分子、离子），并定期自测。使用抽认卡记忆化学式、符号和金属活动性顺序。绘制思维导图，将原子结构⇾化学键⇾性质等主题关联起来，有助于把握全局。
Past paper practice is one of the most effective revision tools. Start with simple questions and gradually move to multi-step calculations. The SQA website provides specimen papers and marking instructions that show exactly what examiners expect.
历年真题练习是最有效的复习工具之一。从简单题目入手，逐步过渡到多步计算。SQA 官网提供样卷和评分指导，明确展示考官的期望。
Set a regular study schedule – ng, and problem solving to keep sessions engaging. Record key equations like n=m/M and the
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